Browsing by Author "Farrant, Jill"

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    Anomalous pressure volume curves of resurrection plants do not suggest negative turgor.
    (Oxford University Press, 2001) Willigen, Clare Vander; Farrant, Jill; Pammenter, N W
    Pressure-volume (PV) curves of the desiccation-tolerant angiosperms, Eragrostis nindensis, Craterostigma wilmsii and Xerophyta humilis, and the desiccation-sensitive species, E. curvula, were compared. The shape of curves for E. nindensis and C. wilmsii differed from the usual curvilinear form. Over the relative water content (RWC) range of approx. 70 to 25%, PV curves indicated water potentials higher than directly measured water activity on frozen-thawed tissue. Anatomical studies showed considerable cell wall folding and a consequent reduction in cell volume in these two species; this was not seen in X. humilis or E. curvula which showed normal PV curves. It is suggested that this wall folding may have prevented the development of negative turgor and physical stress in the cells, and contributed to desiccation tolerance. Copyright 2001 Annals of Botany Company.
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    Changes in leaf hexokinase activity and metabolite levels in response to drying in the desiccation?tolerant species Sporobolus stapfianus and Xerophyta viscosa.
    (Oxford University Press, 2001) Whittaker, Anne; Bochicchio, Adriana; Vazzana, Concetta; Lindsey, George; Farrant, Jill
    The phosphorylation of glucose and fructose is an important step in regulating the supply of hexose sugars for biosynthesis and metabolism. Changes in leaf hexokinase (EC 2.7.1.1) activity and in vivo metabolite levels were examined during drying in desiccation‐tolerant Sporobolus stapfianus and Xerophyta viscosa. Leaf hexokinase activity was significantly induced from 85% to 29% relative water content (RWC) in S. stapfianus and from 89% to 55% RWC in X. viscosa. The increase in hexokinase corresponded to the region of sucrose accumulation in both species, with the highest activity levels coinciding with region of net glucose and fructose removal. The decline of hexose sugars and accumulation of sucrose in both plant species was not associated with a decline in acid and neutral invertase. The increase in hexokinase activity may be important to ensure that the phosphorylation and incorporation of glucose and fructose into metabolism exceeded production from potential hydrolytic activity. Total cellular glucose‐6‐phosphate (Glc‐6‐P) and fructose‐6‐phosphate (Fru‐6‐P) levels were held constant throughout dehydration. In contrast to hexokinase, fructokinase activity was unchanged during dehydration. Hexokinase activity was not fully induced in leaves of S. stapfianus dried detached from the plant, suggesting that the increase in hexokinase may be associated with the acquisition of desiccation‐tolerance.
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    Open Access
    From proteomics to biotechnology. using the resurrection plant eragrostis nindensis to genetically engineer drought tolerant crops
    (2023) Van Der Pas, Llewelyn; Farrant, Jill; Hilhorst, Henk; Hitzeroth, Inga; Rafudeen, Suhail
    Global climate change is increasingly putting pressure on finding innovative solutions to ensure future food security in particular to developing African nations. Of great relevance are regionally adapted crops, known as orphan crops, which tend to have very little economic value but can provide a source of alternative food security. Vegetative desiccation tolerance is a remarkable feat of selective evolution and is only present in a small number of angiosperms. The ability of some plants, such as Eragrostis nindensis to survive complete cellular water deficit provides an attractive model for discovery-based omics to not only understand the mechanisms involved in driving desiccation tolerance but to explore the feasibility of potential target genes for orphan crop improvement. The work presented herein was aimed at complementing a transcriptomic study using the same leaf tissue from that study to evaluate the changes from RNA to protein and to determine whether there were proteomic signatures that could differentiate the desiccation-tolerant non-senescent (NST) leaves from the desiccation-sensitive senescent (ST) leaves. The data presented here illustrate that several important metabolic pathways are significantly reprogrammed, that only a small subset of proteomic-matching transcripts were translated, and that proteomic differences between the NST and ST were noted despite their being significant similarities between the two in general oxidative and osmotic stress. For instance, the prevention of ferroptosis and accumulation of raffinose synthase and starch synthase in the NST exclusively illustrated that small and subtle increases in protein abundance are likely responsible for enabling resurrection in the NST and not in the ST, which we hypothesise here is likely due to sacrificing of ST upon rehydration as a means to act as a source of nutrition for the NST during resurrection. The study also focussed on functional characterisation of a heat shock 70 protein from E. nindensis as a target for genetic engineering. The selected EnHSP70 was shown to localise to the chloroplast and was able to undergo liquid-liquid phase separation in vitro in a protein concentration and polyethylene glycol dependent manner which could have broad impacts on its role in maintaining proteostasis. In Arabidopsis thaliana, overexpression of EnHSP70 resulted in a stunted germination phenotype whereas expression in BL21 Escherichia coli did not enhance tolerance towards salt or mannitol stress. Furthermore, incubation of EnHSP70 with lactate dehydrogenase did not confer improved thermotolerance. Taken together, the selected HSP70 from E. nindensis did not appear to be involved in stress response and is likely involved with general proteostasis. Lastly, a method for generating embryonic calli from Eragrostis tef is presented with the goal of using this developed protocol for the genetic improvement of the Ethiopian orphan crop.
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    Molecular characterization of XVT8, a stress-responsive gene from the resurrection plant Xerophyta viscosa Baker.
    (Springer, 2001) Ndima, Tozama; Farrant, Jill; Thomson, Jennifer; Mundree, Sagadevan
    Xerophyta viscosa (Baker) is a monocotyledonous resurrection plant that is capable of tolerating extremes of desiccation. Upon rewatering, it rehydrates completely, assuming its full physiological activities. Studies on changes in gene expression associated with dehydration stress tolerance were conducted. A cDNA library was constructed from mRNA isolated from dehydrated X. viscosa leaves [85%, 37% and 5% relative water content (RWC)]. XVT8 represents one of 30 randomly selected clones that were differentially expressed when X. viscosa was dehydrated. Sequence analysis of XVT8 revealed that XVT8 exhibited 45% and 43% identity to dehydrin proteins from Arabidopsis thaliana and Pisum sativum respectively, at the amino acid level. XVT8 encodes a glycine -rich protein (27 kDa) which is largely hydrophilic and contains a hydrophobic segment at the C-terminus. Southern blot analysis confirmed the presence of XVT8 in the X. viscosa genome. XVT8 transcripts accumulated in X. viscosa plants that were exposed to heat, low temperature and dehydration stresses, and to exogenous abscisic acid and ethylene. These results provide direct evidence for the heat, low temperature, dehydration, abscisic acid and ethylene -dependent regulation of the XVT8 gene in X. viscosa.
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    A novel stress-inducible antioxidant enzyme identified from the resurrection plant Xerophyta viscosa Baker.
    (Springer, 2002) Mowla, Shaheen B; Thomson, Jennifer A; Farrant, Jill; Mundree, Sagadevan G
    A cDNA corresponding to 1-Cys peroxiredoxin, an evolutionarily conserved thiol-specific antioxidant enzyme, was isolated from Xerophyta viscosa Baker, a resurrection plant indigenous to Southern Africa and belonging to the family Velloziaceae. The cDNA, designated XvPer1, contains an open reading frame that encodes a polypeptide of 219 residues with a predicted molecular weight of 24.2 kDa. The XvPer1 polypeptide shows significant sequence identity (approx. 70%) to other recently identified plant 1-Cys peroxiredoxins and relatively high levels of sequence similarity (approx. 40%) to non-plant 1-Cys peroxiredoxins. The XvPer1 cDNA contains a putative polyadenylation site. As for all 1-Cys peroxiredoxins identified to date, the amino acid sequence proposed to constitute the active site of the enzyme, PVCTTE, is highly conserved in XvPer1. It also contains a putative bipartite nuclear localization signal. Southern blot analysis revealed that there is a single copy of XvPer1 in the X. viscosa genome. All angiosperm 1-Cys peroxiredoxins described to date are seed-specific and absent in vegetative tissues even under stress conditions; therefore, XvPer1 is unique in that it is expressed in the vegetative tissues of X. viscosa. The XvPer1 transcript was absent in fully hydrated X. viscosa tissue but levels increased in tissues subjected to abiotic stresses such as dehydration, heat (42 °C), high light intensity (1,500 µmol photons m–2 s–1) and when treated with abscisic acid (100 µM ABA) and sodium chloride (100 mM NaCl). Western blot analyses correlated with the patterns of expression of XvPer1 transcripts under different stress conditions. Immunofluorescence analyses revealed that XvPer1 is localized in the nucleus of dehydrated X. viscosa leaf cells. These results suggest that XvPer1 is a stress-inducible gene, which may function to protect nucleic acids within the nucleus against oxidative injury.
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    Open Access
    Physiological responses of soybean seeds (Glycine Max L. Merr.) to metal pollutants
    (1999) Malan, Heather Louise; Farrant, Jill; Linder, Peter
    Seeds, especially cereals and legumes are a vital component of the human diet and as a result of elevated levels of environmental pollution, seed-bearing crop plants are grown increasingly on contaminated soils. Although several studies have looked at seeds as potential sources of metals that may enter the food chain, very little research has been carried out to examine the effect of such toxicants on the physiology of these plant parts. This study examines the effect of two metal pollutants, namely Cd and Ni, on the development and functioning of soybean seeds. Cadmium was chosen because it is considered to be the most serious of the metal pollutants, is highly toxic to mammals and easily enters the food chain. Nickel, is relatively mobile within plants compared to other metal pollutants and also represents a potential threat to the environment. Soybean plants (cv Crawford) were grown to maturity in a circulating nutrient solution system, which in the case of treatment plants, was amended with either Cd or Ni. From the results of preliminary trials in which the effect of metal pollutant concentration on plant growth and pod production were examined, nutrient solution concentrations of 0.05 mg Cd/litre or 1 mg Ni/litre were used for routine cultivation of the plants (termed metal-treatment plants). Seeds were harvested at four (initially five) different growth stages and the effect of the metal pollutants on size and other developmental parameters investigated. Accumulation and distribution of Cd, Ni and other elements within the seeds was examined. Firstly, by using inductively coupled plasma-atomic emission spectroscopy (ICP-AES) and secondly, at a finer resolution utilising a nuclear rnicroprobe, coupled with proton induced X-ray emission (PIXE). The anatomy and ultra-structure of metal pollutant-treatment seeds was compared with that of control seeds using light as well as transmission electron microscopy (LM and TEM). Possible structural aberrations caused by the presence of Cd or Ni were identified. In another set of experiments, seeds were germinated in solutions of different concentrations of Cd or Ni (termed metal-germinated seeds). The LCso and ECso values for germination and radicle extension respectively, were derived. The effect of metal pollutants on seedling establishment was also examined by cultivating the plants further in nutrient solution containing different concentrations of the metal pollutants. Other seedlings (termed recovery seedlings), subsequent to germination in the metal pollutant, were transferred to the standard control nutrient solution. Uptake of metal pollutant, concentration of photosynthetic pigments and photosynthetic functioning were examined in metal-germinated, recovery and control seedlings. In the final section of the study, chemical speciation in the nutrient solution used for cultivation of metal-treatment plants was modelled using the speciation software MINTEQA2. Percentage bioavailability of the metal pollutants as well as of four nutritionally important metals, Fe, Mn, Mg and Zn was examined. Furthermore, computer simulations were also carried out to model the effect of pH and increasing metal pollutant concentration, on the bioavailability of the abovementioned metals. Addition of even low concentrations of Cd or Ni to the nutrient solution resulted in reduction in root biomass and pod (and hence seed) production. This effect increased with metal pollutant concentration. Cadmium appeared to be more phytotoxic than Ni and lower concentrations of the former were required elicit an equivalent response. Visual toxicity symptoms noted, included red pigmentation in the petioles, chlorosis of the trifoliate leaves followed by the appearance of necrotic areas. In addition, Ni-toxicity symptoms included terminal deformed pods, as well as red spots in the inter-veinal areas of leaves. Both Cd and Ni accelerated plant senescence. Leaf abscission was promoted and in the case of the older growth stages, the rate of pod development was increased relative to that of control pods. Nonetheless, the presence of metal pollutants did not appear to enhance pod abscission during the developmental period examined. In metal-treatment plants, pollutant loads in roots were much higher than in shoots. Cadmium levels in the seeds harvested from these plants were extremely low (approximately 1µg/g.dm) indicating that the metal is excluded from these tissues to a great extent. Nickel was more mobile than Cd, reaching higher levels than the latter in all plant parts and a concentration of approximately 50 µg/g.dm in mature treatment seeds. Pods did not appear to exclude entry of metal pollutants into the seeds and contained similar concentrations as the seeds in the case of Cd and lower concentrations in the case of Ni. Seed concentration of both metal pollutants (when expressed as µg/g.dm) was highest in the youngest growth stages and then decreased with age. Cadmium was found to decrease mean seed size relative to control seeds, but had no effect on the number of seeds per pod. Nickel on the other hand, exerted no effect on size but did reduce the average number of seeds contained in each pod. As a result of reduced mass, the presence of Cd in the nutrient solution reduced the lipid, starch and total N content of seeds harvested from soybean plants grown in such a medium. No significant effect on the quantity of storage reserves could be detected in Ni-treatment seeds. Mature seeds harvested from Cd-treatment plants had lower Fe and Mn, but higher Zn and Mg contents than control seeds. Nickel-treatment seeds also exhibited reduced Fe, Mn and elevated Zn contents, but Mg levels were also reduced. Shifts in seed concentrations of the nutritionally important metals noted above, were also found in pods, most notably a reduction in Fe content. Despite the presence of metal pollutants within the seeds, the extent of germination in metal pollutant-treatment seeds was not impaired compared to control seeds. The rate of germination, however, was depressed slightly in both metal treatments. Examination of metal distribution within seeds using ICP-AES revealed that Cd was localised mainly in the testa and cotyledons, with very little in the axis. Nickel was mainly concentrated in the axis and least in the cotyledons. Cadmium levels in metal-treatment seeds were too low for distribution maps to be made using PIXE and only point analyses were carried out. Overall, these results agreed with those obtained from ICP analysis. Nickel, which accumulated to higher levels within seeds, was mapped successfully using PIXE. The embryo axis appeared to contain the highest concentrations of Ni, particularly in the apical meristem and cortex, but was virtually absent from the root cap area and the central stele. Interesting elemental maps were also obtained for S, Fe and Mn (supplied in the nutrient solution at normal physiological concentrations). Levels of Ni in control seeds were extremely low and could not be mapped. The LC50 and EC50 values for germination and radicle elongation respectively, in the presence of exogenous metal pollutant, were found to be lower for Cd than Ni. This is consistent with the higher phytotoxicity of the former element. Radicle elongation was found to be more sensitive to the presence of exogenous metal pollutants than seed germination. The major effect on seedling establishment was reduction in growth, particularly of the lateral roots. As in the case of mature plants, pollutant loads in the roots of seedlings were higher than in shoots. Recovery seedlings appeared relatively healthy after a period of exposure to metal pollutants, up to a critical concentration of metal pollutant. Nonetheless, although little reduction in the concentration of photosynthetic pigments or the efficiency of photosynthetic functioning was recorded, two weeks after exposure to the metal pollutants, root biomass was still reduced relative to that of control seedlings. The total chlorophyll content of metal pollutant-germinated seedlings decreased at low concentrations of the metal pollutants, but then increased at higher concentrations. It is suggested that this is the result of the combined effects of inhibition of photosynthetic pigment synthesis, coupled to reduced leaf expansion. Metal pollutant-treatment and control seeds did not differ from each other in external appearance nor at the LM level. Slight ultra-structural variations were noted using TEM however, including the presence of vesicles in the nucleoplasm of Cd-treatment cotyledon cells, an increase in the number of crystalloid inclusions in protein bodies (possibly phytate) as well as an increased number of starch grains in the radicle tip cells of Ni-treatment seeds. Further research is needed to confirm these results. Significant ultra-structural changes in metal pollutant-germinated seedlings were noted compared to the controls. From examination of the ultra-structure of such seedlings, both Cd and Ni appeared to affect nuclear functioning, proteolysis, as well as starch grain formation. Cadmium elicited a response at lower concentrations than Ni. It is stressed that these are not necessarily the principal toxic actions of the metals however, as marked structural changes were apparent only at high concentrations. Aberrations to cytoplasm adjacent to the cell wall were also noted in cells from seedlings germinated in the presence of Ni. Computer speciation simulations using MINTEQA2 predicted that in the respective treatment solutions, 87% of Cd, but only 49% of Ni, was in a form suitable for plant uptake. Shifts in seed contents of Mg, Mn and Zn, in response to amendment of the nutrient solution with metal pollutants, could not be explained by changes in chemical speciation in the growth medium. The decrease in Fe content in Ni-treatment seeds on the other hand, may possibly be a consequence of decreased bioavailability of this ion in the nutrient solution. pH was found to exert an effect on the speciation profile of metal pollutants, as well as on that of nutrients. The most marked effect was noted on Nt2. The proportion of metal in this form (the bioavailable form) decreased from 49% to 3% when pH was increased from 6.0 to 7.0. Although plants are able to limit entry of metal pollutants into seeds to some extent, they do still enter these tissues and it is important that the effects on functioning of such plant parts be examined. This study reports preliminary findings on this aspect. Much work remains to be done however particularly with regard to the effect of metal pollutants on the quality of storage reserves, especially proteins. Furthermore, this work should be extended to the seeds of other important crop plants.
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    Retention of mobile water during dehydration in the desiccation-tolerant grass Eragrostis nindensis
    (Wiley, 2005) Balsamo, Ronald A; Vander Willigen, Clare; Boyko, Clare; Farrant, Jill
    Leaf tensile strength was measured for the drought-tolerant grass Eragrostis curvula and the desiccation-tolerant grass E. nindensis when fully hydrated, partially dehydrated, naturally air-dried, and flash-dried. Leaf tensile strength increased in intact, air-dried leaves of E. curvula but not for similarly treated leaves of E. nindensis. Examination of leaf cross-sections by light microscopy and histochemical staining for lignins failed to show any significant structural differences between the two species in the hydrated state. When leaves were flash-dried, the tensile strength of E. curvula remained unchanged from leaves dried naturally, while there was a marked increase in the tensile strength of flash-dried leaves of E. nindensis. Proton NMR indicated that the desiccation-tolerant E. nindensis retained mobile water when leaf relative water content was less than 20% if dried naturally but not if flash-dried, whereas no mobile water was detected in leaves of E. curvula when dried either naturally or with flash-drying to below 20% relative water content. This behaviour suggests a fundamental difference in strategy for surviving water loss in vegetative tissues between desiccation-tolerant species and drought-tolerant species.
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    Open Access
    Stress adaptions of the resurrection fern Anemia caffrorum's microbiome and metabolism across seasons
    (2024) Wittenberg, Michael; Farrant, Jill; Hilhorst, Henk
    Resurrection plants can tolerate desiccation for extended periods of time. So far, Anemia caffrorum is the only known resurrection plant which exhibits this phenomenon seasonally. In the wet season, its fronds are desiccation sensitive (DS) whilst in the dry season they are desiccation tolerant (DT) and can survive losing more than 95% of their cellular water content. Its rhizome on the other hand is tolerant all year round and likely regulates the tolerance of the fronds. As such, it provides a unique model to contrast desiccation sensitivity and tolerance within the same plant species. Furthermore, previous transcriptomic and metabolomic analyses on the rhizome suggested that it attempts to modulate its microbiome during desiccation and its response to pathogenic microorganisms during the wet season. Therefore, in this study, A. caffrorum was used as a model to identify microorganisms associated with either plant desiccation sensitivity or tolerance and characterize their dynamics in response to fluctuations in water content and across seasons. Furthermore, to identify potential signaling or selection mechanisms between A. caffrorum and its associated microorganisms, matching metabolomics was conducted. Additionally, this allowed for the characterization of the metabolic mechanisms of desiccation tolerance employed by A. caffrorum and its associated microbes. To this end, the root endosphere, rhizosphere and bulk soil controls were sampled from A. caffrorum in its natural environment across seasons. This captured samples from hydrated DS individuals as well as desiccated and rehydrated DT individuals. In order to characterize their bacterial and fungal compositions, genomic DNA extracts of all samples were subjected to 16S and ITS amplicon sequencing on a PacBio Sequel II platform. In addition, polar metabolites and lipids were measured from these samples using combinations of untargeted Gas and Liquid Chromatography Mass Spectrometry. The results showed that indeed A. caffrorum can enrich its endosphere with beneficial taxa such as symbiotrophs whilst excluding pathogens. Furthermore, A. caffrorum can shape its microbiome across seasons and changing water contents to respond to stress. In the hydrated state, particularly in the DS individuals, biotic stress appeared to be prioritized as these samples exhibited numerous pathogenic, antibiotic producing and antibiotic resistant taxa in addition to antibiotic metabolites. In addition, a number of growth promoting bacteria were found to be increased in these hydrated samples which may assist A. caffrorum with growth processes during water availability. In response to desiccation, triacylglycerols and phospholipids were accumulated. Moreover, simple monosaccharides were likely mobilized to more complex desiccation protective di- and trisaccharides. This shift may have selected for an increase of glycolytic and saprobic taxa. Such functionalities may be beneficial to A. caffrorum during desiccation and potentially allow for rapid remobilization of nutrients upon rehydration. Network analysis within the endosphere identified that microbes were generally most linked to lipid metabolism. Here the antibiotic producer Dactylosporangium was the top taxa influencing network topology and was exclusively correlated to numerous lyso phospholipids which are known as signaling molecules involved in inter alia the plant immune response. Thus, A. caffrorum may efficiently regulate its microbiome by acting on influential antibiotic producing taxa. These findings, if validated through further studies, highlight possible mechanisms through which crops may also modulate their microbiomes in response to stress. This could contribute to ensuring food security under increasing climate change driven biotic and abiotic stress
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    Open Access
    Stress adaptions of the resurrection fern Anemia caffrorum's microbiome and metabolism across seasons
    (2025) Wittenberg, Michael; Farrant, Jill; Hilhorst, Henk
    Resurrection plants can tolerate desiccation for extended periods of time. So far, Anemia caffrorum is the only known resurrection plant which exhibits this phenomenon seasonally. In the wet season, its fronds are desiccation sensitive (DS) whilst in the dry season they are desiccation tolerant (DT) and can survive losing more than 95% of their cellular water content. Its rhizome on the other hand is tolerant all year round and likely regulates the tolerance of the fronds. As such, it provides a unique model to contrast desiccation sensitivity and tolerance within the same plant species. Furthermore, previous transcriptomic and metabolomic analyses on the rhizome suggested that it attempts to modulate its microbiome during desiccation and its response to pathogenic microorganisms during the wet season. Therefore, in this study, A. caffrorum was used as a model to identify microorganisms associated with either plant desiccation sensitivity or tolerance and characterize their dynamics in response to fluctuations in water content and across seasons. Furthermore, to identify potential signaling or selection mechanisms between A. caffrorum and its associated microorganisms, matching metabolomics was conducted. Additionally, this allowed for the characterization of the metabolic mechanisms of desiccation tolerance employed by A. caffrorum and its associated microbes. To this end, the root endosphere, rhizosphere and bulk soil controls were sampled from A. caffrorum in its natural environment across seasons. This captured samples from hydrated DS individuals as well as desiccated and rehydrated DT individuals. In order to characterize their bacterial and fungal compositions, genomic DNA extracts of all samples were subjected to 16S and ITS amplicon sequencing on a PacBio Sequel II platform. In addition, polar metabolites and lipids were measured from these samples using combinations of untargeted Gas and Liquid Chromatography Mass Spectrometry. The results showed that indeed A. caffrorum can enrich its endosphere with beneficial taxa such as symbiotrophs whilst excluding pathogens. Furthermore, A. caffrorum can shape its microbiome across seasons and changing water contents to respond to stress. In the hydrated state, particularly in the DS individuals, biotic stress appeared to be prioritized as these samples exhibited numerous pathogenic, antibiotic producing and antibiotic resistant taxa in addition to antibiotic metabolites. In addition, a number of growth promoting bacteria were found to be increased in these hydrated samples which may assist A. caffrorum with growth processes during water availability. In response to desiccation, triacylglycerols and phospholipids were accumulated. Moreover, simple monosaccharides were likely mobilized to more complex desiccation protective di- and trisaccharides. This shift may have selected for an increase of glycolytic and saprobic taxa. Such functionalities may be beneficial to A. caffrorum during desiccation and potentially allow for rapid remobilization of nutrients upon rehydration. Network analysis within the endosphere identified that microbes were generally most linked to lipid metabolism. Here the antibiotic producer Dactylosporangium was the top taxa influencing network topology and was exclusively correlated to numerous lyso phospholipids which are known as signaling molecules involved in inter alia the plant immune response. Thus, A. caffrorum may efficiently regulate its microbiome by acting on influential antibiotic producing taxa. These findings, if validated through further studies, highlight possible mechanisms through which crops may also modulate their microbiomes in response to stress. This could contribute to ensuring food security under increasing climate change driven biotic and abiotic stress.