Browsing by Subject "Energy policy"
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- ItemOpen AccessAssessing the effectiveness of national solar and wind energy policies in South Africa(Energy Research Centre, University of Cape Town., 2010) Edkins, Max; Marquard, Andrew; Winkler, HaraldThe report assesses the progress made on renewable energy deployment for the solar and wind technologies over the last 12 years in South Africa. First the report assesses the potential contribution solar water heaters (SWHs), concentrating solar power (CSP), large-scale photovoltaic (PV) farms and wind technology can bring to South Africa’s energy demand by 2030. It highlights what the mid-term potential for each is by 2030 and compares this with the deployment of each over the past 12 years. From this a renewable energy policy effectiveness value is calculated based on the method developed in the Deploying Renewables Report (IEA, 2008a) and this is critically assessed. Finally, the report assesses the factors involved in renewable energy deployment, or the lack thereof, in South Africa and discusses recent developments in the field. The compilation of this paper was based on desktop reviews; data interpretation from multiple sources; expert opinion of the authors and peer reviewers; and interviews with experts in the field. A number of interviews were conducted at the ISES International Solar Energy Society Conference in October 2009 and the Energy 2010 Indaba in February 2010. The data used in this report to formulate the projections is from a number of sources and has been independently reviewed.
- ItemOpen AccessComments on the Carbon Offsets Paper issued by National Treasury in April 2014(Energy Research Centre, University of Cape Town., 2014) Energy Research CentreWhile this is not the paper on a full emissions trading scheme (ETS) that had been indicated, comments are provided on the narrower focus of domestic offsets. The design is closely allied to Treasury’s design of a carbon tax as set out in a policy paper (National Treasury 2013), with domestic carbon off-sets designed to reduce tax liability by up to 10%, for activities not covered by the tax. ERC has commented separately on the tax policy, and the present comments should be read together with those comments. The finding that carbon offset projects can generate significant local sustainable development benefits (p. 16) should be treated with caution. The experience with the CDM has been mixed, as assessed for example in (Ellis, Winkler, Morlot & Gagnon-Lebrun 2007). Market mechanisms generally favour low-cost reductions, and require clear policy guidance and / or financial incentives to deliver additional benefits.
- ItemOpen AccessComments on the Carbon Tax Policy Paper issued by National Treasury in May 2013(Energy Research Centre, University of Cape Town., 2013) Energy Research CentreOur analysis of the carbon tax as proposed in Treasury’s policy paper is that it is both low relative to the required task and includes a complex set of exemptions. The effective tax rate of R12-48 / t CO2-eq is too little to transform South Africa’s energy economy, and does not make a sufficient contribution to bending the curve of our national greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, so that it starts following a benchmark ‘peak, plateau and decline’ GHG emission trajectory, as set out in our climate policy (RSA 2011).
- ItemOpen AccessComments on the draft Integrated Energy Plan issued by the Department of Energy in 2013(Energy Research Centre, University of Cape Town., 2013) Energy Research CentreThe Energy Research Centre (ERC) welcomes the publication of South Africa’s draft 2012 Integrated Energy Plan (IEP 2012). We offer these comments, in the hope that they may contribute in the process of making the bold, well informed and robust final integrated energy plan whose implementation can see the country’s economic, social and environmental goals attained. Before delving into the comments that should be considered in the final IEP, ERC found it crucial to congratulate the Department of Energy on achieving such a milestone of producing an official energy systems model with supporting database and supporting data input methodologies, more so because its an OPEN source energy model which can be interrogated by all members of the society. A first iteration of results has been produced and this in itself is a significant achievement. From this perspective the IEP 2012 can be considered a success. This shouldn’t however discourage constructive criticism on technical problems many of which the IEP modelling team are already aware of. The comments are made with a clear understanding that the IEP draft document just showed the results of the model thus far and these comments are mainly on the modelling process and assumptions used.
- ItemOpen AccessElectrification financing and tariffs: international literature review(1993) Eberhard, Anton; Mountain, Bruce; Pickering, Mark; van Horen, CliveThis report was commissioned by the National Electrification Forum (NELF}. It is a review of international experience in electricity pricing, funding and financial management. The purpose of the report is to assess how these issues have affected electrification programmes in developing countries and to draw conclusions which will assist NELF in establishing appropriate electricity pricing and financing policies for South Africa. A successful electrification programme which enables widened access to electricity is ultimately dependent on the creation and maintenance of a financially viable electricity distribution industry. Financial viability is, in tum, crucially dependent on appropriate pricing and financing policies and financial management practices. The report is based on an extensive review of international literature. The review of electricity pricing commences with a discussion on pricing policies, the principles of economic efficiency and marginal cost-based prices. Some of the difficulties of this approach are highlighted, and additional, often more pressing, pricing objectives are noted, including the imperative of prices which will allow financial viability and prices which will achieve greater equity. Actual practice in developing countries is then examined with regard to tariff levels and structures. Tariff levels are compared with long run marginal costs, generally being much lower in developing countries. The tariff structures discussed include inclining block, single flat rate, two-part, unmetered and time-of-use tariffs. The question of subsidies is raised as well as the problems of implementing equitable life-line tariffs.
- ItemOpen AccessEnergy Development and Climate Change: Decarbonising Growth in South Africa(University of Cape Town, 2007) Winkler, Harald; Marquard, AndrewThis paper presents a case study of human development and climate change in South Africa. It starts by outlining the key development challenges that the country faces and the history of recent responses in development policy. Section 2 hones in on the energy sector, providing a brief profile of the sector contributing most to greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. The implications of South Africa’s ‘minerals-energy complex’1 for its GHG emissions profile are examined in section 3. Section 4 discusses the context and development of South African climate change policy, and examines implementation progress to date. The final section of the paper begins with a summary analysis of key mitigation options in energy efficiency, changes in the fuel mix and structural changes. Section 5 then examines the key constraints facing the implementation of such options, before concluding with possibilities for international cooperation to contribute to sustainable development and mitigation in South Africa.
- ItemOpen AccessEnergy futures modelling for African cities: selecting a modelling tool for the SAMSET project(Energy Research Centre, University of Cape Town., 2014) Tait, Louise; McCall, Bryce; Stone, AdrianUrbanisation is occurring fastest in developing countries, with the least developed countries expected to have the highest population growth rates between 2010 and 2050 (Madlener and Sunak, 2011). Cities in these countries are going to increasingly be important sites of energy demand and associated emissions. Much of the literature about sustainable urban energy transitions has to date focussed on developed country contexts; as the current sources of greatest emissions, this makes sense. In looking forward, however, if the energy demand and emissions of developing country cities increase to that equivalent of many western cities today, we may be unable to avoid catastrophic climate change. Transitioning energy infrastructures and associated urban systems is a long-term process. In the absence of forward planning, developing country cities run risks of infrastructural and urban planning lock-in to systems that are unsustainable (Olazabal and Pascual, 2013).
- ItemRestrictedEnergy policies for sustainable development in South Africa(Elsevier, 2007) Winkler, HaraldThis paper summarises the results of a study that analysed ways of making South Africa’s future energy development more sustainable. The South African economy is comparatively energy-intensive, with total primary energy supply of 11.7 MJ per US$ of GDP on a purchasing power parity basis, compared to 7.9 MJ/$ for Asia and 6.7 MJ/$ for Latin America. Moreover, the high dependence on coal makes the country also very carbon-intensive, with energy related CO2 emissions of 6.7 tonnes per capita, comparable to the OECD average of about 11 tCO2 /cap., and far higher than the non-OECD average of 1.7 tCO2/cap. Important policy initiatives are already under way to improve energy efficiency as well as the share of renewable energy. The impact of different energy policies, including alternative technologies for both supply and demand up to 2025, were analysed using the Markal model, a least-cost optimising tool. The reference case is close to the government’s Integrated Energy Plan, with CO2 emissions increasing from 337 million tonnes (Mt) in 2001 to 591 Mt in 2025. A cost-effective renewable energy policy scenario would increase the renewable electricity generation from 2,000 GWh in 2001 to almost 18,000 GWh in 2025, with significant contribution from solar thermal and biomass cogeneration technologies. Energy efficiency can make a substantial contribution, especially in industry. The combination of measures would reduce total energy system costs by 16 billion rands ($ 2.2 billion) and CO2 emissions by 770 Mt, each over a 25-year period. The policies analysed here can therefore contribute both to sustainable development and to climate change mitigation.
- ItemOpen AccessEnergy poverty in South Africa: widening access to basic energy services(1993) van Horen, Clive; Afrane-Okese, Yaw; Eberhard, Anton; Trollip, Hilton; Williams, AnthonyThis report contains a description and analysis of the current energy consumption patterns of poor households in South Africa, and proposes a range of policies which can improve significantly the access of the poor to adequate and affordable energy services. It draws on the work of the Energy Policy Research and Training Project, a two-year policy research project involving some twenty person-years of effort, being conducted at the Energy for Development Research Centre (EDRC).
- ItemOpen AccessEnergy profile: Lesotho(1991) Gielink, M I; Dutkiewicz, R KThis report is one of a series summarizing the energy situation in sub-equatorial Africa. The purpose of the series is to analyze the energy position for those organizations trading or intending to trade with those countries, or for organizations entering into joint ventures with those countries. It is also the intention to use the individual reports to determine the possibility for energy interchange in the region and the potential for energy supply and demand in the region.
- ItemOpen AccessEnergy, water and climate change in Southern Africa: what are the issues that need further investment and research?(Energy Research Centre, University of Cape Town., 2012) Prasad, Gisela; Boulle, Michael; Boyd, Anya; Rahlao, Sebataolo; Wlokas, Holle; Yaholnitsky, IvanRegional climate change projections in Southern Africa, based on GCMs comparing 2080-2099 to 1980-1999, indicate that global warming will most likely lead to greater than the global annual mean temperatures for all seasons, 3.1°C for summer warming and 3.4°C for winter warming (Christensen et al, 2007). Warming in Southern Africa will lead to increasing rainfall intensities, decreasing frequencies of low intensity (soft soaking) rainfall and longer dry period between rainfall events. This will result in more severe draughts, floods and heatwaves, which will lead to greater food insecurity. In historic times, draughts and floods had already major impacts on Southern African populations. Around 1200 to 1500, droughts led people to abandon settlements in the Kalahari Desert. The Lifaqane wars, starting in about 1815, were characterized by a 25-year period of famine and violent conflict between peoples in Southern Africa. During the 1991-1992 draught, 20 million people in the region (15% of SADC population) needed food relief (Dejene et al 2011). Many parts of Southern Africa face two critical resource constraints on development, namely energy and water. Energy and water are closely linked at different levels and scales. Water drives the turbines of hydroelectric power plants. Processing of coal and cooling in thermal and nuclear power plants requires water and energy is required to lift, treat and distribute water. Even at the household level, we observe water-energy linkages. When using water-saving showerheads, for example, we not only save water, but also electricity for heating the water. This complex interconnection is called the water-energy nexus. At the same time, coal-based power plants emit large amounts of greenhouse gases (GHGs) into the atmosphere, contributing to climate change and climate variability which then leads to floods and droughts. In times of drought little water flows into hydroelectric dams, affecting electricity generation. For rural communities the greater frequencies and severity of droughts and floods caused by climate change leads not only to crop failure and subsequent hunger but also interferes with water supply technologies when, for example, the water levels in boreholes rise or fall beyond the specification of the pump. Thus climate change critically impacts the water-energy nexus. The International Development Research Centre (IDRC) in Canada commissioned the Energy Research Centre (ERC) at the University of Cape Town to assess the water-energy nexus in the context of climate change. ‘The goal of the exploratory project is to analyse the way energy and water services can be combined and improved to enhance resilience and adaptive capacity of communities to climate variability and change’. After an introduction to the water-energy nexus in Southern Africa (Chapter 1) and a brief review of the four countries studied as well as climate change scenarios for the Southern African region (Chapter 2), the study reports on the following four major research topics identified by the Southern African team: 1. The state of integrated planning of water and energy resources in the context of climate change (Chapter 3). 2. Opportunities and barriers for renewable energy technologies for rural water services in Namibia, Botswana and Mozambique (Chapters 4 and 5). 3. The water-energy nexus in policies of South Africa (Chapter 6). 4. An investigation of water supply adaptation technologies and strategies in a case study from Lesotho (Chapter 7). The assessment is based on secondary data through a cross-disciplinary desktop study, discussions with experts and two workshops. The countries covered in this report are Botswana, Lesotho, Mozambique, Namibia, and South Africa.
- ItemOpen AccessFeito no Brasil? Made in South Africa? Boosting technological development through local content requirements in the wind energy industry(Energy Research Centre, University of Cape Town., 2013) Rennkamp, Britta; Westin, Fernanda FortesHow can local content requirements (LCR) boost technological capability for renewable energy? This paper investigates the implementation of LCR in the wind energy in Brazil and South Africa. Brazil tried to grow a local wind industry requiring 60% domestic content in each installation since 2004. South Africa demands up to 45% domestic content in its recent program. The benefits of these requirements are heavily debated. The rationale behind LCR is that governments in developing countries intend to stimulate jobs in new industries and to accelerate technological development. This market intervention imposes a barrier for international manufacturers, as local manufacturing can push up the technology prices. Based on evidence from Brazil and South Africa, we find that LCR fall short as a single technology policy instrument. The Brazilian case shows that LCR incentivized the domestic production of low and medium technology content. These are the heavy parts, such as the towers, which are difficult to transport. Recently, parts of the nacelle, hubs and blades have increasingly been manufactured locally. High technology-intensive components, however, continue to be imported. Boosting local industries requires not just restrictive measure such as content requirements but, more importantly, it requires active support of technological capability.
- ItemOpen AccessGreen certificate trading(Energy Research Centre, University of Cape Town., 2009) Brick, Kerri; Visser, MartineThis paper proceeds as follows: Section 2 briefly outlines the policy instruments available for the promotion of renewable energy sources, while section 3 discusses green certificate trading in more detail, including the green certificate market in South Africa at present. Section 4 describes the international implementation of renewable energy support mechanisms. The lessons learnt from this experience in terms of design suggestions for the development of a South African TREC framework are detailed in Section 5. Also from international experience, Section 6 provides a comparison of a feed-in tariff scheme and a quota obligation system combined with tradable green certificates. Finally, the interaction between emission trading schemes and renewable energy promotion systems are outlined in Section 7.
- ItemRestrictedImpacts, vulnerability and adaptation in key South African sectors: an input into the Long Term Mitigation Scenarios process.(Energy Research Centre, University of Cape Town, 2007) Midgley, G; Chapman, R; Mukheibir, P; Tadross, M; Hewitson, B; Wand, S; Schulze, R; Lumsden, T; Horan, M; Warburton, M; Kgope, B; Mantlana, B; Knowles, A; Abayomi, A; Ziervogel, G; Cullis, R; Theron, ATen free-standing chapters make up this report, and this Executive Summary and supporting Synthesis Report serve to draw together the main findings in both an abbreviated and an extended and illustrated format that focuses on main findings, but also adds a level of detail for the purpose of communicating the key results, and the uncertainties associated with them, for the benefit of a policy maker. The chapters that make up this report are compiled as separate documents as follows. These are generally reviews of the literature available, but in some cases comprise new work that has been carried out to provide information in an area that is lacking an assessment.
- ItemOpen AccessInformation for a developmental approach to mitigation: linking sectoral and economy-wide models for Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Peru and South Africa.(Energy Research Centre, University of Cape Town., 2014) Winkler, Harald; Delgado, Ricardo; Palma-Behnke, Rodrigo; Pereira, Amaro; Moyo, Alfred; Wills, William; Salazar, Angel; Baos, Tessy VásquezThis paper reports on modelling approaches that provide information to answer policy-relevant questions in Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Peru and South Africa. The analysis informs different country contexts: energy-related GHG emissions currently dominate in Chile and South Africa, while those due to agriculture, forestry and land-use (AFOLU) are historically more important in Brazil, Colombia and Peru.
- ItemOpen AccessLocal employment through the low-pressure solar water heater roll-out in South Africa(Energy Research Centre, University of Cape Town., 2013) Wlokas, Holle Linnea; Ellis, CharlotteIn February 2013, the United Nations Secretary-General’s High-Level Panel of Eminent Persons on the post-2015 development agenda failed to identify climate change as a priority issue (United Nations 2013). The defined framing questions for the panel’s work and the most recent announcement highlight sustainable growth with equity, wealth through management of natural resources and partnerships - but not the detrimental impact of climate change on development (Field 2013). This shortcoming is a reflection of the current discourse. Even though changing, climate change and development are still located in two different camps. Although much work has gone into bridging this gap by potentially aligning policy agendas, the challenge to achieve integration of climate and development objectives is still obvious on the ground (Rennkamp 2012). Solar water heating in South Africa is one such on-ground example which, when investigated thoroughly, presents a learning opportunity.
- ItemOpen AccessLong Term Mitigation Scenarios: Strategic Options for South Africa(Department of Environment Affairs and Tourism, 2007) Scenario Building TeamThe focus of this document is mitigation: if South Africa takes the decision to mitigate, then this document addresses how to determine the options, the emissions reductions achieved by these options, and the attendant costs of each option. How, then, is South Africa to grow and develop in order to reduce poverty, while at the same time retooling its economy in order to reduce its greenhouse gas emissions?
- ItemOpen AccessLow carbon development and poverty: exploring poverty alleviating mitigation action in developing countries(University of Cape Town, 2012) Wlokas, Holle; Rennkamp, Britta; Torres, Marta; Winkler, Harald; Boyd, Anya; Tyler, Emily; Fedorsky, CatherineClimate change and poverty mostly fall into the adaptation category in the current research literature and relevant policy-making. The strong connection between poverty and adaptation rests on the assumption that poor countries produce only low carbon emissions. They will also be most affected by the impacts of climate change. Therefore, efforts on poverty and climate change concentrate mostly on adapting to the consequences of climate change. If we acknowledge current findings of poverty research, we find that this separation between mitigation and adaptation does not hold anymore. Recent research suggests that poverty demographics have changed between 1990 and 2010. The majority of the poor nowadays live in middle-income countries, and not only in low-income countries. Emissions in middle-income countries increase, while their governments try to reduce emissions in the long term without jeopardising socio-economic development. Climate change presents a threefold policy challenge for middle-income countries. They need to: i) design mitigation actions in such a way that they contribute to alleviate poverty; ii) reduce emissions, helping to slow global warming in a way that does not compromise the competitiveness of their economies, because without collective action by all, the costs of inaction affect mostly the poor; and iii) prepare to adapt to the unavoidable consequences of climate change. The paper unpacks the linkages between low-carbon development, mitigation and poverty in middle-income countries (where the majority of the poor live). Most middle-income countries pursue carbon-intensive development paths and will need to mitigate emissions towards low-carbon development paths. How can mitigation actions contribute to poverty alleviation? An explorative analysis of mitigation actions in five middle-income countries shows that mitigation has moved on the political agendas over the past five years. Yet, these efforts are not necessarily linked with poverty alleviation instruments. Most mitigation action can have positive and negative poverty effects. Their impacts depend on an adequate pro-poor policy mix.
- ItemOpen AccessMethodologies for carbon budgets in South Africa(University of Cape Town., 2012) Winkler, Harald; Marquard, AndrewThe paper reviews previous work at national and sectoral level. Previous work on mitigation potential included the LTMS, on consideration of which Cabinet outlined its vision and strategic direction for emissions to peak, plateau and decline. Previous work directly on carbon budgets was commissioned by WWF, outlining the approach for a low-carbon action plan. The report suggested an important principle for allocation, namely that sectors should motivate for their share of the NCB based on the best used, in particular the most carbon-effective contribution to South Africa’s development needs. The paper examines analytical tools based on work in South Africa, to model the energy economy as a system.
- ItemRestrictedA new scenario framework for climate change research: scenario matrix architecture(Springer, 2014) Van Vuuren, Detlef P; Kriegler, Elmar; O’Neill, Brian C; Ebi, Kristie L; Riahi, Keywan; Carter, Timothy R; Edmonds, Jae; Hallegatte, Stephane; Kram, Tom; Mathur, Ritu; Winkler, HaraldThis paper describes the scenario matrix architecture that underlies a framework for developing new scenarios for climate change research. The matrix architecture facilitates addressing key questions related to current climate research and policy-making: identifying the effectiveness of different adaptation and mitigation strategies (in terms of their costs, risks and other consequences) and the possible trade-offs and synergies. The two main axes of the matrix are: 1) the level of radiative forcing of the climate system (as characterised by the representative concentration pathways) and 2) a set of alternative plausible trajectories of future global development (described as shared socio-economic pathways). The matrix can be used to guide scenario development at different scales. It can also be used as a heuristic tool for classifying new and existing scenarios for assessment. Key elements of the architecture, in particular the shared socio-economic pathways and shared policy assumptions (devices for incorporating explicit mitigation and adaptation policies), are elaborated in other papers in this special issue.