OpenUCT :: Browsing by Department "Energy Research Centre"

Browsing by Department "Energy Research Centre"

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Open Access
A Historical Institutionalist Analysis of the Evolution of South Africa's Municipal Electricity Sector within the Broader Electricity Supply Industry
(2020) Covary, Theodore; Marquard, Andrew; Steyn, Grové
This study has been partly inspired by the fact that historical narratives on the evolution of the South African Electricity Supply Industry (ESI), have for the most part focused on the national vertically integrated utility, Eskom; with far less attention being paid to the role that the municipal electricity undertakings (MEU's) have, and continue to, play. Indeed, this is somewhat surprising if one considers that MEU's began operating more than 20 years before Eskom's 1923 formation; and perhaps this lack of focus on MEU's is compounded by Eskom's operational crisis from 2006 (threatening its ongoing viability), which has overshadowed the perilous situation that MEU's have found themselves in. The research thus has two objectives. The first is to provide a detailed historical account of the role of MEU's and their contribution to the country's ESI from their genesis; while demonstrating the linkages between Eskom, MEU's and the three tiers of government. The second then examines how from the formation of the Union (1910), two fundamental but diametrically opposing objectives continue to prevail: 1) An over-burdened, financially ‘self-sufficient', local government, whose limited scope to collect revenue means electricity surpluses must be maximised to cross-subsidise its operations; and, 2) A vertically integrated utility, mandated to generate electricity at the lowest unit price, so as to provide the energy intensive economy with a competitive advantage. These contradictions, which have endured for many decades, reached fever pitch in the last 20 years, contributing significantly to the demise of ESI reforms initiated in 2000 and abandoned in 2010. Simultaneously, they have worsened the crisis of local government, which is constitutionally mandated to deliver basic services to its constituents, whose failure to do so, in many instances now threatens national government legitimacy at the most fundamental level. Within this context, the research, (based on the premise that history and institutions matter), employs the theoretical framework of new institutionalism, as applied through the lens of historical institutionalism (HI). Here, application of HI's core tenets revolves around identifying and explaining the critical junctures which create path dependency and institutional lock-in, while also accounting for incremental change which undoubtedly exists over a 120-year period. However, the unjust social and economic history of the country, where political decisions (pre and post-apartheid) have had a disproportional impact on state entities, requires closer scrutiny. For this, a detailed conceptual framework is employed to disentangle the complex relationship that has developed between the three tiers of government and their respective interacting powers. Ultimately, in delivering a detailed historiography of municipal electricity supply, the research posits that the ESI requires deeper fundamental reform than envisaged in 2000; and that most importantly, this must take cognisance of the extent to which MEU's are embedded within local government. This, the research believes, will increase the likelihood of local government participation and acceptance; perhaps pointing to an as yet unexplored path forward out of the South African ESI's current quandary.
Open Access
A review of international literature of ESCOs and fee-for-service approaches to rural electrification (solar home systems). Interim Report: Output 6
(2003) Energy and Development Research Centre
Restricted
Access and affordability of electricity in developing countries
(Elsevier, 2011) Winkler, Harald; Alam, Mozaharul; Rahman, Atiq; Mwakasonda, Stanford; Simões, André Felipe; Rovere, Emilio Lèbre La
A key objective of developing countries is to provide affordable access to modern energy services in order to support economic and social development. The paper presents a number of arguments for why and in which way energy access and affordability can play a key role in national development programs and in achieving the Millennium Development Goals. Approaches for measuring accessibility and affordability are presented, drawing on case studies of Bangladesh, Brazil, and South Africa, countries with different rates of electrification. Affordability of using electricity is examined in relation to the energy expenditure burden for households and time consumption. Conclusions focus on lessons learned and recommendations for implementing policies, instruments, and regulatory measures to tackle the challenge of affordability.
Open Access
Access to water - the impact of climate change in small municipalities
(University of Cape Town. Energy Research Centre, 2007) Mukheibir, Pierre
The key objective of this case study is to demonstrate the affect of projected climate change impacts on the local water supply of a small town and the related financial consequences in terms of water pricing and access. While the delivery of basic water services, free for the first 6kl per household per month, is driven by a national development goal, it is incumbent on local government to ensure this right. For this, the local municipality needs to ensure that water supplies meet the consumption demand, present and future. Technical and financial planning are therefore required to ensure that an undisrupted services is provided. The impact of climate change needs to be included in this planning.
Open Access
Air pollution modelling for the greater Cape Town region
(1994) Dracoulides, Demosthenes Anastasios; Dutkiewicz, Ryszard Karol
Limited research on dispersion modelling for the Cape Town metropolitan area has been undertaken. This thesis deals with air-pollution aspects in relation to dispersion modelling, as well as with the input requirements and application of a dispersion model in the Greater Cape Town region. An EPA approved Gaussian plume model, the Industrial Source Complex Short Term 2 (ISCST2), was chosen for the pollution simulation. The model requires one point meteorological measurements and can accommodate multiple point, line and area sources. Meteorological data used in the study were collected from D. F. Malan airport for the years 1991 and 1992. However, required parameters, such as the mixing height and the atmospheric stability class, are not readily available and thus needed to be calculated. Three methods for determining the mixing heights and three methods for determining atmospheric stability class were used in the model and the accuracy for each combination was assessed. Appropriate emission information for use with dispersion modelling is not available for the Greater Cape Town area. Therefore, the compilation of an emission inventory formed a considerable part of this study. Emission data from the large industries was collected with the collaboration of the Cape Town City Council's Air Pollution Control and of the Air Pollution Group of the Western Cape Regional Services Council. The rest of the sources (i.e. residential, vehicular and industrial), were grouped into areas, and their emissions were based on their fuel consumption.
Metadata only
Aligning South African energy and climate change mitigation policy
(2009) Tyler, Emily
This paper considers the alignment of energy policy in South Africa with the Cabinet’s mitigation vision of a ‘peak, plateau and decline’ greenhouse gas emissions trajectory to 2050. First, the term ‘policy’ is defined as having a number of components, ranging from the broad ‘policy paradigm’ which guides the approach to policy development in a particular area, to statements and intentions, written documents and institutional orientation and capacity. Following from this definition it is argued that, at the level of written and stated energy policy, the intention exists to move towards a more diverse, efficient and less carbon-intensive energy sector. A number of policy instruments are being developed which go some way towards achieving this. However, the targets set are too low, and all initiatives are hampered for institutional and financing reasons. On the other hand, however, the dominant energy policy paradigm and the orientation and capacity of the country’s energy institutions are fundamentally misaligned with climate mitigation policy. In particular, conflicts between these institutions constrain policy co-ordination and hence alignment. The primary causes of misalignment are argued to be, firstly, existing and entrenched institutional orientation and capacity and, secondly, the lack of a single, overarching, co-ordinating energy policy institution which has sufficient power and influence to deal with the vested interests of the existing energy institutions. The paper then explores, by means of thought experiments in the areas of renewable energy and energy efficiency, what would be required to align energy policy with Cabinet’s mitigation vision. The establishment of a single, overarching, co-ordinating energy policy institution is identified as a pre-requisite to any chance of alignment. This institution would then establish and govern appropriately oriented institutional capacity, either by creating new institutions, or mandating existing institutions to deliver on low carbon initiatives. It is suggested that whilst new capacity would be optimal, it may be unrealistic to attain this level of sector transformation within the timeframes required by mitigation policy, given the strongly entrenched interests in maintaining the status quo. The paper concludes that intervention at the highest political level is required to enforce energy institutional co-ordination and achieve actualisation of emissions mitigation aligned energy policies.
Open Access
An analysis of the necessity and relevance of establishing a pipeline regulator in South Africa's Petroleum Industry
(2003) Mutemeri, Gama
This thesis focuses on issues surrounding energy regulation, and specifically regulation of pipelines that carry petroleum products in South Africa. The introduction of a regulator for petroleum pipelines is part of an ongoing process taking center stage in the South African government's petroleum industry policy arena. Independent regulation of energy industries is a recent phenomenon in South Africa. There is much activity in deciding which regulatory models should be adopted in the energy sector. The thesis analyses a government policy decision to introduce a regulator of petroleum pipelines. Among some of the key issues that receive attention are the following: • Is the petroleum pipeline industry in South Africa large enough to justify an independent regulator? • Do pipelines in South Africa enjoy monopoly rents? If they do, is the establishment of an independent regulator the most cost-effective way of dealing with monopoly rents? • How effective would such a regulator be in the current structure of the country's petroleum industry? Road and rail transport systems carry vast quantities of petroleum products. Would it be more appropriate for the regulator to include all transporters of petroleum products? The thesis concludes that for an industry of such small size as pipeline transportation in South Africa, the necessity of a pipeline regulator might need to be reviewed. For a variety of reasons, there are strong reasons to conclude that a pipeline regulator will have minimum impact over key issues of the transportation of petroleum products.
Open Access
An Evaluation of The Performance and Comparative Cost of Ground-mounted and Rooftop Mounted Solar Photovoltaic Systems
(2020) Leighton, Michael; Hughes, Alison; McCall, Bryce
In South Africa, there is an increasing interest in installing rooftop mounted solar photovoltaic systems. However, financing the photovoltaic systems causes most interest to be abandoned, largely due to the cost required to replace a building's asbestos roof. An alternative solution to replacing an asbestos roof is to install a ground-mounted photovoltaic system, which is more costly compared to a rooftop mounted system. This study aims to determine if a ground-mounted or a rooftop mounted solar photovoltaic system is the most financially feasible solar photovoltaic configuration. In this study three photovoltaic systems were analysed, all of which are installed in Atlantis, Western Cape (WC). Since all three systems are in the same area, they are all exposed to the same metrological conditions, allowing for identical energy generation potential. Two of the photovoltaic systems are ground-mounted systems located respectfully at the South African Renewable Energy Incubator (SAREBI) and at Stripform Packaging. The third system is a rooftop mounted system located at SA Tyre Recyclers. The photovoltaic system at SAREBI is a 9.75 kWp system consisting of 30 Canadian Solar CS6U-325P modules, one Schneider Electric 20 kW inverter, a tilt angle of 15° and an azimuth angle of -19°. The photovoltaic system at SA Tyre Recyclers is a 231 kWp system consisting of 700 JA Solar JAP72S-01-330-SC modules, 7 SolarEdge 27.6 kW inverters, a tilt angle of 13° and an azimuth angle of 22°. The photovoltaic system at Stripform Packaging is a 20.1 kWp system consisting of 60 Canadian Solar CS6U-335P modules, one SMA 20 kW inverter, a tilt angle of 15° and an azimuth angle of 46°. To achieve the aim of this study, the performance of each of the solar photovoltaic systems was examined, by comparing their annual specific yield. After which the technical aspects and differences of each of the photovoltaic systems were explored, to illustrate how each of the systems differ technically and how each system can be improved. Finally, the comparative cost of each of the solar photovoltaic systems was examined by analysing the levelized cost of energy (LCOE) and the payback period for each of the photovoltaic systems. The results demonstrated that from an annual specific yield perspective, the ground-mounted configuration was the best performing, whilst from a financial perspective, the rooftop mounted configuration had the lowest levelized cost of energy (LCOE) and payback period. However, installing a ground-mounted system is more financially feasible than replacing an asbestos roof and then installing a rooftop mounted system. In conclusion, by fully understanding the performance, payback period and levelized cost of energy, a clear understanding of potential risk can be determined, thus making the installation of photovoltaic systems more appealing for financiers. It is recommended that this study be repeated in a manner in which each of the photovoltaic system configurations are constructed consisting of all the same photovoltaic components, measuring equipment, tilt and azimuth angles. All of which would result in two identical photovoltaic systems where one is installed on a rooftop and the other installed on the ground. Once the two photovoltaic system configurations are equal in all aspects, an accurate comparison to determine which configuration is the most optimal performer and which is the most financially viable will be possible.
Open Access
An analysis of annual environmental conditions and heat gains, and theoretical assessment of approaches to improve summer thermal comfort, of the Energy Research Centre at the University of Cape Town
(2017) Cunliffe, Guy Edward; Hibberd, Andrew; Moorlach, Mascha
The Energy Research Centre (ERC), a research centre located at the University of Cape Town (UCT), is considering retrofitting its offices with measures to improve its occupants' thermal comfort, particularly during Cape Town's summer months. While a simple solution would be to install an active cooling system, first consideration should be given to the deployment of preventative cooling measures and retrofits. By these means, the costs of an active cooling system would be reduced, as well as the building's relative increase in energy consumption and indirect greenhouse gas emissions. This dissertation examines internal thermal conditions of the ERC under current building conditions and predicts levels of thermal discomfort likely to be experienced by occupants, with emphasis on Cape Town's summer season. Heat gain components to the ERC are quantified, and a Base Case cooling scenario is determined; this characterises the peak cooling load and active annual cooling energy required to alleviate summer thermal discomfort, if no other interventions are implemented. Thereafter, the impacts of a selection of preventative cooling measures on the Base Case cooling scenario are assessed, and a theoretical payback period for each progressive measure is evaluated, relative to projected installation and operational costs of an active system designed to meet the Base Case. A model of the ERC offices is developed in DesignBuilder, which characterises thermal properties of the building envelope, thermal loads of lighting, electronic equipment and building occupants, and effects of prevailing weather patterns and solar radiation at the site of the building. Physical energy simulations of the model are run in EnergyPlus, which uses a series of algorithms based on the Heat Balance Method to quantify internal psychrometric conditions and heat gains in half-hourly iterations. An EnergyPlus Ideal Loads Air System component is input into the simulation to quantify the active cooling load required to maintain comfortable design conditions. The results indicate that 7 814.5 hours of thermal discomfort are experienced annually across the ERC (divided into eight thermal zones in the DesignBuilder model), with 37.6% of discomfort hours occurring between December and March, and 12.8% in February alone. Notably, a greater proportion of discomfort hours, 38.9%, were predicted for winter months (June through August). However winter thermal discomfort was not addressed in detail here, as the scope of the dissertation was limited to analysing ERC cooling only. Solar gains through external windows were found to be the largest single source of annual heat gain (20.65 MWhth), followed by heat gains due to lighting heat emissions (19.99 MWhth). Profiles during typical summer conditions showed significant heat gain also arises from conduction through the ceiling, due to existing but sporadic and thin layers of fibreglass ceiling insulation, with gaps that allow thermal bridging between the roof space and ERC thermal zones. The Base Case annual cooling requirements were determined to be 27.64 MWhth, while peak cooling load was found to be 66.87 kWth. Sensible cooling dominated total cooling loads in summer months. East and west facing thermal zones required the greatest cooling energy (normalised per floor area), having been shown to experience the greatest normalised solar and lighting heat gains. Inclusion of a 75 mm polyester fibre insulation layer above the ceiling boards would result in a 13.6% decrease in annual discomfort hours, relative to the current building condition, and reduced peak cooling load by 19% relative to the Base Case. Increasing thickness above 75 mm resulted in increased ceiling thermal resistance and further reduced annual discomfort hours. However, the marginal improvements in thermal comfort were found to decrease with increased insulation thickness. A 75 mm thickness of polyester fibre insulation was therefore selected as the first preventative measure to be considered for the ERC, and was included in all further assessment of additional preventative options. Lighting retrofits were also considered, by means of two progressive measures: Delamping – the removal of fluorescent luminaires from overly lit thermal zones – and Relamping – replacement of remaining fluorescents and light fixtures with more energy efficient technology (as well as the Delamping and Insulation measures). Delamping was found, from simulation analysis, to reduce lighting heat gains by 31%, relative to the Base Case and annual cooling requirements by 24%, with total projected costs after 10 years reduced by 15.6% relative to the Base Case. Relamping had a less pronounced impact on cooling requirements, but resulted in 15 % lower lighting energy use compared to Delamping only. The final measure considered was a Shading measure, whereby the replacement of the existing solar window film, currently fitted to each of the ERC's external windows, with internal adjustable shading. The Shading retrofit (in addition to all previous preventative measures) was found to cause a 35% reduction in annual cooling energy relative to the Base Case, as well as a 7% relative to the Relamping scenario. However, cost evaluation showed that costs of implementing the Shading retrofit significantly outweighed net incremental annual savings achieved under the measure, and was thus not recommended as a preventative option for the ERC. Alternative shading options, such as fixed external shading, may prove more cost effective in mitigating the ERC's solar heat gains, and should be considered in further research. From these results, it was concluded that a combination of insulation and lighting upgrades would provide the greatest benefit, in terms of thermal comfort, to the ERC, and would result in a more cost effective active cooling system, should one be proposed. The dissertation ended with recommendations for further work, including further analysis of ERC heating requirements in winter, and investigation into additional and alternative cooling methods, such as passive or solar cooling.
Open Access
Analysis of energy efficiency in South Africa's primary mineral industry: a focus on gold
(2012) Johnston, Oliver Ross; Cohen, Brett; Broadhurst, Jennifer Lee
Energy use is the human activity responsible for the majority of its greenhouse gas emissions. In 2010 the global energy-related emissions of carbon dioxide - the principal greenhouse gas-jumped by 5.3% from the previous year, to a record 30.4 gigatonnes (IEA 2011a). The International Energy Agency (2011) has projected that the world's primary energy demand could increase by 33% and that energy related CO2 emissions will increase by 20% to 36.4 Gt between 2010 and 2035 (IEA 2011a). South Africa is one of the most energy intensive countries in the world, measured as GHG emissions per Gross Domestic Product produced. South Africa's energy intensiveness is a result of the energy intensive nature of a number of its key industries. The mineral industry is one such industry. It plays a crucial role in South Africa's economy and is the largest industry in its primary economic sector (Chamber of Mines 2010). Energy efficiency has been identified as one of the cheapest and most effective measures to reduce energy consumption and its associated greenhouse gas emissions. The Long Term Mitigation Scenarios coordinated by the University of Cape Town's Energy Research Centre identified that South Africa's industrial sector had cumulatively the greatest potential to reduce its GHG emissions through improved energy efficiency, ahead of the commercial, residential or transport sectors(Winkler 2007). South Africa's continued reliance on unsustainable energy production, particularly coal, increases the need for maximising energy efficiency to mitigate resource consumption and the GHG emissions associated with the production and use of fossil fuel generated energy. This project aims to identify and holistically evaluate the potential opportunities that exist for the reduction of energy and climate footprints of South Africa's gold industry sub-sector, with the aim of providing guidance to both government and industry for a path towards a more energy efficient industry with lower associated GHG emissions. To this end the thesis begins with a comprehensive review of the potential drivers, barriers and opportunities for increased EE and GHG emissions mitigation for the local minerals industry.
Open Access
An analysis of institutional structures, organisational culture and decision-making processes that affect the sustainability of buildings at the University of Cape Town
(2018) Mandalia, Jigisha; Marquard, Andrew; Madhlopa, Amos
Universities globally are realising the potential they have in shaping the future workforce to deal with a variety of environmental issues, such as efficient resource use and sustainable development. The University of Cape Town (UCT) has committed to a number of environmental sustainability goals and is a signatory to international sustainable campus charters. This dissertation analyses the progress of sustainability levels of buildings on campus. A case study of three recently built buildings was undertaken, the last of which attained a 4-star green rating by the Green Building Council of South Africa. A detailed analysis was conducted through semi-structured interviews with key stakeholders at the university and others, including architects and sustainability experts. This study specifically evaluates the institutional structures, organisational culture and decision-making processes that have enabled, promoted or hindered sustainable buildings at UCT. One key policy was established in 2012, which stated that all new buildings at UCT will be constructed to be 4-star rated at a minimum. The decisions leading up to this policy were analysed and they highlight the enabling mechanisms within the university. However, a number of barriers and challenges were found that hindered progress. Many challenges are not unique given the similarity of university structures and governance globally, such as lack of: resources, awareness, motivation and coordination. However, there are local and contextual challenges, especially lack of funding and competing priorities, that need to be addressed before sustainability is fully integrated into UCT. Moreover, inertia of large institutions, difficulty in shifting organisational culture, and complex and lengthy decision-making processes make change difficult at a university. Nevertheless, some strategies are explored that are likely to be effective in promoting increased sustainability levels, especially of buildings on campus.
Open Access
Analysis of possible quantified emission reduction commitments by individual Annex I Parties
(Energy Research Centre, University of Cape Town., 2009) Winkler, Harald; Marquard, Andrew; Letete, Thapelo
This paper draws on research in the public domain, in order to provide an analytical basis for a proposal on possible quantified emission reduction commitments for Annex 1 countries under the Kyoto Protocol.
Open Access
Analysis of the economic implications of a carbon tax
(Energy Research Centre, University of Cape Town., 2009) Winkler, Harald; Marquard, Andrew
The aim of this paper is to provide an overview of the implications and impact of a carbon tax in the South African context – it aims to serve as an introduction rather than an exhaustive analysis, and therefore does not draw any comparative conclusions on the suitability of a carbon tax by comparison with alternative instruments such as cap and trade systems. Before turning to the specific topic of this paper, a carbon tax, some background is given to broadly on economic instruments and carbon markets. Following this, existing attempts to model the impact of a carbon tax on the South African economy are discussed, followed by a discussion on policy challenges and some existing proposals.
Open Access
Analysis of the economic implications of a carbon tax
(University of Cape Town, 2011) Winkler, Harald; Marquard, Andrew
A carbon tax should be considered among the range of instruments available to the South African government, economy and society, as part of a broad portfolio of mitigation actions. A carbon tax was one of the most effective wedges or mitigation options analysed for the Long-term mitigation scenarios (LTMS) for South Africa. The LTMS strategic option ‘Using the market’ reduced emissions roughly as required by Science, for several decades. The LTMS research indicated that the effectiveness increases, up to certain tax levels. South Africa might consider a tax starting around R100-200 / t CO2eq, escalating in future. Our paper presents results on research on a carbon tax in South Africa conducted in 2008 and was presented at the Climate Change Summit 2009. The efficiency with which a carbon tax achieves the goal of reducing GHG emissions depends on responsiveness and substitutability. This is shown more fully on the supply-side, while further work will be needed to fully understand the response to a carbon tax on the demand side. Careful design of a carbon tax (or other economic instruments considered) will be important to ensure that it is effective in meeting its objective – reducing GHG emissions. We propose a price discovery and adjustment mechanism that sets a band around the desired ‘peak, plateau and decline’ trajectory. Equity demands that poor households, in particular, be shielded from any burden. Off-setting incentives, such as food subsidies or reduced VAT on basic goods, should in finance measure that which will ensure that the package of tax and incentives is a net benefit to the poor – and not to treat the tax as a revenue-raising instrument. With appropriate design, a carbon tax can be a powerful instrument of mitigation in South Africa, and at the same time, contribute to socio-economic objectives. Keywords: carbon tax, South Africa, economic instruments, climate change mitigation, greenhouse gas emissions.
Open Access
Analyzing sustainable energy in developing countries: Selected South African case studies
(2008) Howells, Mark Idwal
This thesis demonstrates the use of selected Energy-Environment-Economic (E3) modelling techniques to provide insight to developing country issues. The work focuses on analyzing combinations of technologies and energy use to satisfy potential requirements of consumers at the lowest cost to society. (Tools such as MARKAL- of the Energy International Energy Agency's (IEA) Technology Systems Analysis Program (ETSAP) - are used often). The thesis shows how these models may be adapted in novel ways to tackle different challenges in different contexts. The applications covered range from macro-economic problems to the micro-economic village level analysis of fuel and appliance use. The thesis demonstrates through a national (South African) analysis selected greenhouse gas (GHG) mitigation potentials. By examining markets in low-income areas dependent on biomass it shows relationships between institutional- and information-failure and traditional fuel use. Using the increased functionality available in the TIMES model (the successor to the afore-mentioned MARKAL), detailed dynamics of low income fuel use are simulated. By adopting simplifications, a robust, simple and critical analysis of an energy subsidy is made. Using a Multi-Criteria Decision Analysis (MCDA) approach a range of GHG mitigation options are compared in a developing country context. The thesis reports on environmentally friendly development paths derived from the application of the Goal Programming extension of MARKAL. Finally it questions the appropriateness of the Clean Development Mechanism's policy of supporting only 'additional' GHG mitigation in certain circumstances. In an appendix it develops an efficient industrial data collection process using an MCDA analysis. The main theme of this thesis is to show how suitable modelling can not only warn of inefficiency in development policies, but also indicate technical scenarios of how such inefficiencies are best remedied. Key words: South Africa, Energy-Environment-Economic Modelling, MARKAL, TIMES, Efficiency, MCDA, Greenhouse gas, Goal Programming, Clean Development Mechanism
Open Access
The application of biogas technology in South Africa for small-scale energy production
(1994) Thom, Cecile; Eberhard, Anton
This study has aimed to contribute to the development of low-cost or "simple" biogas technology, i.e. the design, construction, operation and utilisation of relatively simple biogas systems in South Africa, and to explore the utilisation of the technology by lower-income groups in the rural areas of the country, particularly in the former homelands. Specific objectives included the development of biogas plants suitable for application in South Africa, and the assessment of the acceptability of the technology among potential users. Five biogas plants were constructed during the study, which provided the opportunity to test various designs and obtain response from some of the potential users of the technology.
Open Access
Application of photovoltaic solar energy to medium-scale installations
(2001) Bezuidenhout, Sandra; Dutkiewicz, Ryszard Karol; Bennett, Kevin
Although South Africa has significant energy reserves, some 50-60% of the South African population is without access to electricity. Lack of infrastructure is one of the root courses of which energy supply forms an important component. The energy sector is an integral part of the whole economy, and energy planning requires analysis of the links between the energy sector and the national economy. Local economy can be developed, if energy provision and supporting services are made available to rural areas. South Africa has, so far, developed and implemented energy activities without a solid base in energy policy and macro-economic planning. This has resulted in the situation where energy planning has taken place on a sectoral basis without much regard for socio-economic development objectives or inter-energy considerations.
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Aspirations to grow: when micro- and informal enterprises in the street food sector speak for themselves
(2019) Knox, A J; Bressers, H; Mohlakoana, N; De Groot, J
The street food sector in Sub-Saharan Africa is a source of affordable and nutritious meals for the urban poor, while also being an important source of income for the women who dominate this sector. Despite the importance of this sector, many micro- and informal enterprises are labelled as “survivalist”, beyond the reach of common development policies, which give priority to so-called growth-oriented enterprises. When given the chance to speak for themselves, do enterprises express any aspirations to grow? Contrary to the literature, our findings show that necessitydriven enterprises do aspire to grow and that this is true for both those owned by men and women. Using contextual interaction theory, this paper explains why it is possible for previous authors to come to such a different conclusion.
Open Access
Assessing the effectiveness of national solar and wind energy policies in South Africa
(Energy Research Centre, University of Cape Town., 2010) Edkins, Max; Marquard, Andrew; Winkler, Harald
The report assesses the progress made on renewable energy deployment for the solar and wind technologies over the last 12 years in South Africa. First the report assesses the potential contribution solar water heaters (SWHs), concentrating solar power (CSP), large-scale photovoltaic (PV) farms and wind technology can bring to South Africa’s energy demand by 2030. It highlights what the mid-term potential for each is by 2030 and compares this with the deployment of each over the past 12 years. From this a renewable energy policy effectiveness value is calculated based on the method developed in the Deploying Renewables Report (IEA, 2008a) and this is critically assessed. Finally, the report assesses the factors involved in renewable energy deployment, or the lack thereof, in South Africa and discusses recent developments in the field. The compilation of this paper was based on desktop reviews; data interpretation from multiple sources; expert opinion of the authors and peer reviewers; and interviews with experts in the field. A number of interviews were conducted at the ISES International Solar Energy Society Conference in October 2009 and the Energy 2010 Indaba in February 2010. The data used in this report to formulate the projections is from a number of sources and has been independently reviewed.
Open Access
Assessing the energy implications of exploiting stormwater, through artificial aquifer recharge, as an alternative water source in the Cape Flats, South Africa
(2018) Gobin, Aumashvini; Sparks, Debbie; Ahjum, Fadiel; Armitage, Neil P
South Africa has been facing challenges in both its energy and water sectors over the past few years. They are heavily dependent on each other and a better understanding of the linkages between the two sectors is crucial for sustainable development and planning in both sectors. While the water-energy nexus has been widely explored in developed countries, there is a limited amount of literature found on the significance of the nexus in South Africa. With the current critical drought in the region, alternative water sources are being considered by the City of Cape Town including seawater desalination, water re-use and abstraction of groundwater, to increase potable water supplies. The Cape Flats Aquifer represents a significant water resource for Cape Town and its yield can be further augmented by using artificial recharge with stormwater. Due to the location and water quality of the resource, several possible approaches have been identified for its exploitation. This study investigates quantitatively the energy implications of the three selected approaches in order to exploit the Cape Flats Aquifer as an alternative water source for Cape Town and further provides the potential carbon emissions from their respective energy usages. The three approaches consist of a Centralised Approach to treat the abstracted water for potable uses at two existing Water Treatment Plants (Blackheath and Faure); a Decentralised Approach to supply neighbouring suburbs with minimally treated water for non-potable uses through four proposed treatment plants and a Desalination Approach to treat brackish groundwater to potable quality at a proposed desalination plant. The energy implications of the approaches were evaluated using both direct energy usage during the abstraction, conveyance and treatment stages and the embodied energy of the consumables used during the treatment processes. These were then used to compare the shares of direct electricity intensities and embodied energy intensities of the alternatives at each stage to determine their viability. The individual stages' and overall energy intensities were quantified in form of the total energy required to produce a kl of treated water. The minimum energy required to abstract and convey the water was estimated using basic hydraulic principles. The energy usage at treatment plant levels was computed using the installed electrical capacities at the two existing water treatments for the Centralised Approach while the Decentralised Approach's demand was estimated by determining the treatment processes required to produce non-potable water, which is fit for usage. Energy requirements at the desalination plant were estimated using the salinity levels of the brackish groundwater and target salinity concentration of the treated water. The energy intensities of the approaches were then used as a basis to calculate the current and future electricity costs and their associated carbon footprints using the CSIR (2016) least cost scenario and the IRP (2016) base case future electricity mixes, as the higher and lower threshold for electricity generation costs and carbon emissions. The study found that the electricity intensities of all three alternatives depended significantly on the spatial layout of their respective systems, that is, the topography, distance and extent of their transmission networks. However, the embodied energy intensity of the Centralised alternative was found to be comparable to its electricity intensity, since more chemicals were to purify the water to potable levels. The Decentralised Approach's extensive pumped transmission networks contributed the most to its electricity intensity during the treatment process. The Desalination option was found to be the most energy intensive alternative, with energy intensities ranging from 7.41 to 9.62 MJ/kl, of all three options (1.16 to 1.57 MJ/kl for the Centralised Approach and 3.57 to 7.31 MJ/kl for the Decentralised Approach) and had the highest costs and emissions intensities, mostly caused by the country's coal intensive electricity mix. The Centralised option was found to be the least energy and carbon intensive of the three options and the most viable approach investigated. Desalination, nonetheless, can still considered as an alternative, given the issue of water scarcity, to increase water supplies. Despite its high energy demands, its carbon footprint could potentially decrease with a larger uptake of renewable energy technologies as sources of electricity. The importance of holistic planning across sectors was brought out quantitatively by using current and future water and energy mixes, providing valuable insights on the water-energy nexus, in this study.