Browsing by Author "Steyn, Krisela"

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    A comparative risk assessment for South Africa in 2000: Towards promoting health and preventing disease
    (2007) Norman, Rosana; Bradshaw, Debbie; Schneider, Michelle; Joubert, Jane; Groenewald, Pam; Lewin, Simon; Steyn, Krisela; Vos, Theo; Loubscher, Ria; Nannan, Nadine; Nojilana, Beatrice; Pieterse, Desiréé; the South African Comparative Risk Assessment Collaborating Group
    A landmark project of the Medical Research Council, the first South African National Burden of Disease (SA NBD) study, identified the underlying causes of premature mortality and morbidity experienced in South Africa in the year 2000. (1) These estimates were recently revised (2) on the basis of additional data to estimate the disability-adjusted life years (DALYs) for single causes for the first time in South Africa. DALYs are a comprehensive measure of the disease burden combining the years of life lost (YLLs) as a result of premature mortality and years lived with disability (YLDs) related to illness or injury. (3) Compared with the use of mortality as a measure of disease burden, DALYs also capture the contributions of conditions that do not result in large numbers of deaths. For example, mental health disorders have a large disability component relative to the number of deaths. The SA NBD study highlighted the fact that despite levels of uncertainty there is important information to guide public health responses to improve the health of the nation.
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    A qualitative study of the experiences of care and motivation for effective self-management among diabetic and hypertensive patients attending public sector primary health care services in South Africa
    (2015-08-01) Murphy, Katherine; Chuma, Thandie; Mathews, Catherine; Steyn, Krisela; Levitt, Naomi
    Background: Diabetes and hypertension constitute a significant and growing burden of disease in South Africa. Presently, few patients are achieving adequate levels of control. In an effort to improve outcomes, the Department of Health is proposing a shift to a patient-centred model of chronic care, which empowers patients to play an active role in self-management by enhancing their knowledge, motivation and skills. The aim of this study was to explore patients’ current experiences of chronic care, as well as their motivation and capacity for self-management and lifestyle change. Methods: The study involved 22 individual, qualitative interviews with a purposive sample of hypertensive and diabetic patients attending three public sector community health centres in Cape Town. Participants were a mix of Xhosa and Afrikaans speaking patients and were of low socio-economic status. Results: The concepts of relatedness, competency and autonomy from Self Determination Theory proved valuable in exploring patients’ perspectives on what a patient-centred model of care may mean and what they needed from their healthcare providers. Overall, the findings of this study indicate that patients experience multiple impediments to effective self-management and behaviour change, including poor health literacy, a lack of self-efficacy and perceived social support. With some exceptions, the majority of patients reported not having received adequate information; counselling or autonomy support from their healthcare providers. Their experiences suggests that the current approach to chronic care largely fails to meet patients’ motivation needs, leaving many of them feeling anxious about their state of health and frustrated with the quality of their care. Conclusions: In accordance with other similar studies, most of the hypertensive and diabetic patients interviewed for this study were found to be ill equipped to play an active and empowered role in self-care. It was clear that patients desire greater assistance and support from their healthcare providers. In order to enable healthcare providers in South Africa to adopt a more patient-centred approach and to better assist and motivate patients to become effective partners in their care, training, resources and tools are needed. In addition, providers need to be supported by policy and organisational change.
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    Cardiovascular disease risk factors in the urban black population in Cape Town
    (2013) Peer, Nasheeta; Steyn, Krisela; Levitt, Dinky
    Includes abstract. Includes bibliographical references.
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    Comparative assessment of absolute cardiovascular disease risk characterization from non-laboratory-based risk assessment in South African populations
    (BioMed Central, 2013-07-24) Gaziano, Thomas A; Pandya, Ankur; Steyn, Krisela; Levitt, Naomi; Mollentze, Willie; Joubert, Gina; Walsh, Corinna M; Motala, Ayesha A; Kruger, Annamarie; Schutte, Aletta E; Naidoo, Datshana P; Prakaschandra, Dorcas R; Laubscher, Ria
    Background: All rigorous primary cardiovascular disease (CVD) prevention guidelines recommend absolute CVD risk scores to identify high- and low-risk patients, but laboratory testing can be impractical in low- and middle-income countries. The purpose of this study was to compare the ranking performance of a simple, non-laboratory-based risk score to laboratory-based scores in various South African populations. Methods: We calculated and compared 10-year CVD (or coronary heart disease (CHD)) risk for 14,772 adults from thirteen cross-sectional South African populations (data collected from 1987 to 2009). Risk characterization performance for the non-laboratory-based score was assessed by comparing rankings of risk with six laboratory-based scores (three versions of Framingham risk, SCORE for high- and low-risk countries, and CUORE) using Spearman rank correlation and percent of population equivalently characterized as ‘high’ or ‘low’ risk. Total 10-year non-laboratory-based risk of CVD death was also calculated for a representative cross-section from the 1998 South African Demographic Health Survey (DHS, n = 9,379) to estimate the national burden of CVD mortality risk. Results: Spearman correlation coefficients for the non-laboratory-based score with the laboratory-based scores ranged from 0.88 to 0.986. Using conventional thresholds for CVD risk (10% to 20% 10-year CVD risk), 90% to 92% of men and 94% to 97% of women were equivalently characterized as ‘high’ or ‘low’ risk using the non-laboratory-based and Framingham (2008) CVD risk score. These results were robust across the six risk scores evaluated and the thirteen cross-sectional datasets, with few exceptions (lower agreement between the non-laboratory-based and Framingham (1991) CHD risk scores). Approximately 18% of adults in the DHS population were characterized as ‘high CVD risk’ (10-year CVD death risk >20%) using the non-laboratory-based score. Conclusions: We found a high level of correlation between a simple, non-laboratory-based CVD risk score and commonly-used laboratory-based risk scores. The burden of CVD mortality risk was high for men and women in South Africa. The policy and clinical implications are that fast, low-cost screening tools can lead to similar risk assessment results compared to time- and resource-intensive approaches. Until setting-specific cohort studies can derive and validate country-specific risk scores, non-laboratory-based CVD risk assessment could be an effective and efficient primary CVD screening approach in South Africa.
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    Cost-effectiveness analysis of alternative statin prescribing strategies for the secondary prevention of cardiovascular disease at a South African public sector tertiary hospital
    (2016) De Waal, Reneé; Cleary, Susan; Steyn, Krisela; Levitt, Naomi S
    Strokes and ischaemic heart disease are among the top ten causes of death in South Africa. Given that burden of disease, it is important to establish whether interventions aimed at preventing cardiovascular disease are not only effective, but cost effective too. Cost-effectiveness analyses compare interventions in terms of both their costs and consequences and are a useful tool for policymakers. Statins reduce the risk of cardiovascular events such as myocardial infarctions and strokes, by lowering low density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C) concentrations. Several studies, mostly conducted in Europe or North America, have demonstrated that statins are cost effective, particularly when used to reduce the risk of further cardiovascular events in patients who already have cardiovascular disease (secondary prevention). Despite their widespread use, there are no published cost-effectiveness analyses of statins for the secondary prevention of cardiovascular disease in South Africa. There are also only limited local efficacy data from clinical trials and no costing data of cardiovascular events from a public healthcare sector perspective. There is some debate regarding the optimal statin dose. Some guidelines recommend increasing statin doses until target LDL-C concentrations are achieved, while others recommend prescribing statins at a fixed high dose without monitoring LDL-C. Monitoring LDL-C is relatively expensive compared to the cost of statins, but there is limited evidence that it might improve adherence. I compared the costs (from a provider perspective) and outcomes (life years), of increasing statin doses based on regular measurement of LDL-C concentrations, to achieve a target LDL-C concentration of <1.8 mmol/L; prescribing atorvastatin 80 mg without LDL-C monitoring; and the status quo, simvastatin 20 mg without LDL-C monitoring. I constructed a Markov model with annual cycles; a five-year timeline; starting age of 60 years; and the following health states: ≤1 year after first cardiovascular event, ≤1 year after subsequent cardiovascular event, >1 year after any cardiovascular event, and dead. I estimated transition probabilities using published literature. I estimated the costs of hospitalisation for myocardial infarctions, strokes, unstable angina pectoris and coronary revascularisation procedures using health services utilisation and expenditure data from a sample of patients at a public sector hospital. I discounted costs and outcomes at 3% per year; and explored alternative scenarios and timelines in sensitivity analyses. Atorvastatin 80 mg without LDL-C monitoring, was both the cheapest and most effective option over a five-year period. It remained the most effective option over a lifetime period, but with an incremental cost-effectiveness ratio (ICER) of $146.94 per life year gained relative to the status quo. Treat to target was as effective as atorvastatin 80 mg if I assumed adherence rates of 80% and 60% respectively, but with an ICER of $54 930.96. Treat to target would dominate atorvastin 80 mg only if the frequency of LDL-C monitoring was reduced from 3-monthly to 6-monthly until targets were reached, and the cost of LDL-C monitoring decreased by $9.25 (84%). Fixed-dose statin treatment without cholesterol monitoring is the most cost-effective option for providing statins for the secondary prevention of cardiovascular disease. The costs of regular LDL-C monitoring currently make a treat to target strategy unaffordable in our setting. These results might be used to help guide policy regarding secondary prevention of cardiovascular disease in South Africa.
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    Delivery of health care for cardiovascular and metabolic diseases among people living with HIV/AIDS in African countries: a systematic review protocol
    (BioMed Central, 2016) Watkins, David A; Tulloch, Nathaniel L; Anderson, Molly E; Barnhart, Scott; Steyn, Krisela; Levitt, Naomi S
    Background: People living with HIV (PLHIV) in African countries are living longer due to the rollout of antiretroviral drug therapy programs, but they are at increasing risk of non-communicable diseases (NCDs). However, there remain many gaps in detecting and treating NCDs in African health systems, and little is known about how NCDs are being managed among PLHIV. Developing integrated chronic care models that effectively prevent and treat NCDs among PLHIV requires an understanding of the current patterns of care delivery and the major barriers and facilitators to health care. We present a systematic review protocol to synthesize studies of healthcare delivery for an important subset of NCDs, cardiovascular and metabolic diseases (CMDs), among African PLHIV. Methods/design: We plan to search electronic databases and reference lists of relevant studies published in African settings from January 2003 to the present. Studies will be considered if they address one or both of our major objectives and focus on health care for one or more of six interrelated CMDs (ischemic heart disease, stroke, heart failure, hypertension, diabetes, and hyperlipidemia) in PLHIV. Our first objective will be to estimate proportions of CMD patients along the “cascade of care”—i.e., screened, diagnosed, aware of the diagnosis, initiated on treatment, adherent to treatment, and with controlled disease. Our second objective will be to identify unique barriers and facilitators to health care faced by PLHIV in African countries. For studies deemed eligible for inclusion, we will assess study quality and risk of bias using previously published criteria. We will extract study data using standardized instruments. We will meta-analyze quantitative data at each level of the cascade of care for each CMD (first objective). We will use meta-synthesis techniques to understand and integrate qualitative data on health-related behaviors (second objective). Discussion: CMDs and other NCDs are becoming major health concerns for African PLHIV. The results of our review will inform the development of research into chronic care models that integrate care for HIV/AIDS and CMDs among PLHIV. Our findings will be highly relevant to health policymakers, administrators, and practitioners in African settings.
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    The development and evaluation of a smoking cessation programme for disadvantaged pregnant women in South Africa
    (2011) Everett-Murphy Katherine; Mathews, Catherine; Steyn, Krisela
    Studies of smoking during pregnancy in South Africa have found exceptionally high smoking rates among disadvantaged women of mixed ethnic descent (46%) (Steyn et al., 1997; Petersen et al., 2009a). As a consequence, these women are at high risk of smoking-related pregnancy complications and poor birth outcomes. It has long been recommended that a smoking cessation intervention be developed specifically for this high risk group. There is strong evidence that best practice smoking cessation interventions for pregnant women can be effective in increasing quit rates, as well as in reducing the incidence of premature birth and low birth weight (Lumley et al., 2009). However, these interventions have only been studied in developed countries and it was unknown whether such programmes could be successfully applied to a South African setting. From 2002, the Medical Research Council of SA undertook a programme of research for the purposes of developing and evaluating a smoking cessation intervention, specifically for disadvantaged pregnant women attending public-sector, antenatal clinics in Cape Town. This thesis reports on several aspects of this research.
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    The development of a dietary intervention to modify cation content of foods and the evaluation of its effects on blood pressure in hypertensive black South Africans
    (2006) Charlton, Karen Elizabeth; Steyn, Krisela; Levitt, Dinky
    Black South Africans are at high risk of hypertension, stroke and blood pressure-related target-organ damage. In South Africa, the limited resources at primary health care level allocated to the prevention, early diagnosis and management of hypertension necessitate a non-pharmacological population-based approach to curb the escalating burden of cardiovascular disease, for which raised blood pressure is an important major contributory risk factor. The series of five studies included in the thesis provide a systematic approach to developing an appropriate nutritional population-based approach to lowering blood pressure in a high risk population. Firstly, valid, reliable, and updated information was obtained to identify habitual intake of sodium, potassium, magnesium and calcium in the target population, using the gold standard method of assessing sodium intake, namely 24-hour urinary excretion collections (Chapter 3). This information was necessary to inform the levels of sodium and other cation modification required in order to obtain a physioligically relevant change in blood pressure. As well as quantitative data on levels of sodium intake, the food sources that are the most important contributors to overall non-discretionary salt intake, and the pattern of intake of these foods, is described (Chapter 4). This data allowed identification of commonly consumed foods that could be targeted for modification on their cation content.
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    Differing patterns of overweight and obesity among black men and women in Cape Town: the CRIBSA study
    (Public Library of Science, 2014) Peer, Nasheeta; Lombard, Carl; Steyn, Krisela; Gwebushe, Nomonde; Levitt, Naomi
    Objectives To ascertain the prevalence and determinants of overweight/obesity in the 25-74-year-old urban black population of Cape Town and examine the changes between 1990 and 2008/09. METHODS: In 2008/09, a representative cross-sectional sample, stratified for age and sex, was randomly selected from the same townships sampled in 1990. Data were collected by questionnaires, clinical measurements and biochemical analyses. Gender-specific linear regression models evaluated the associations with overweight/obesity. RESULTS: There were 1099 participants, 392 men and 707 women (response rate 86%) in 2008/09. Mean body mass index (BMI) and waist circumference (WC) were 23.7 kg/m 2 (95% confidence interval (CI): 23.1-24.2) and 84.2 cm (95% CI: 82.8-85.6) in men, and 33.0 kg/m 2 (95% CI: 32.3-33.7) and 96.8 cm (95% CI: 95.5-98.1) in women. Prevalence of BMI ≥25 kg/m 2 and raised WC were 28.9% (95% CI: 24.1-34.3) and 20.1% (95% CI: 15.9-24.9) in men, and 82.8% (95% CI: 79.3-85.9) and 86.0% (95% CI: 82.9-88.6) in women. Among 25-64-year-olds, BMI ≥25 kg/m 2 decreased between 1990 (37.3%, 95% CI: 31.7-43.1) and 2008/09 (27.7%, 95% CI: 22.7-33.4) in men but increased from 72.7% (95% CI: 67.6-77.2) to 82.6% (95% CI: 78.8-85.8) in women. In the regression models for men and women, higher BMI was directly associated with increasing age, wealth, hypertension and diabetes but inversely related to daily smoking. Also significantly associated with rising BMI were raised low-density lipoprotein cholesterol and being employed compared to unemployed in men, and having >7 years of education in women. CONCLUSIONS: Overweight/obesity, particularly in urban black women, requires urgent action because of the associations with cardiovascular disease risk factors and their serious consequences.
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    Effectiveness of a group diabetes education programme in underserved communities in South Africa: pragmatic cluster randomized control trial
    (BioMed Central Ltd, 2012) Mash, Bob; Levitt, Naomi; Steyn, Krisela; Zwarenstein, Merrick; Rollnick, Stephen
    BACKGROUND: Diabetes is an important contributor to the burden of disease in South Africa and prevalence rates as high as 33% have been recorded in Cape Town. Previous studies show that quality of care and health outcomes are poor. The development of an effective education programme should impact on self-care, lifestyle change and adherence to medication; and lead to better control of diabetes, fewer complications and better quality of life. METHODS: Trial design: Pragmatic cluster randomized controlled trialParticipants: Type 2 diabetic patients attending 45 public sector community health centres in Cape TownInterventions: The intervention group will receive 4 sessions of group diabetes education delivered by a health promotion officer in a guiding style. The control group will receive usual care which consists of ad hoc advice during consultations and occasional educational talks in the waiting room.Objective: To evaluate the effectiveness of the group diabetes education programmeOutcomes: Primary outcomes: diabetes self-care activities, 5% weight loss, 1% reduction in HbA1c. Secondary outcomes: self-efficacy, locus of control, mean blood pressure, mean weight loss, mean waist circumference, mean HbA1c, mean total cholesterol, quality of lifeRandomisation: Computer generated random numbersBlinding: Patients, health promoters and research assistants could not be blinded to the health centre's allocationNumbers randomized: Seventeen health centres (34 in total) will be randomly assigned to either control or intervention groups. A sample size of 1360 patients in 34 clusters of 40 patients will give a power of 80% to detect the primary outcomes with 5% precision. Altogether 720 patients were recruited in the intervention arm and 850 in the control arm giving a total of 1570.DISCUSSION:The study will inform policy makers and managers of the district health system, particularly in low to middle income countries, if this programme can be implemented more widely.TRIAL REGISTER:Pan African Clinical Trial Registry PACTR201205000380384
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    A high burden of hypertension in the urban black population of Cape Town: the cardiovascular risk in Black South Africans (CRIBSA) study
    (Public Library of Science, 2013) Peer, Nasheeta; Steyn, Krisela; Lombard, Carl; Gwebushe, Nomonde; Levitt, Naomi
    Objective To determine the prevalence, associations and management of hypertension in the 25-74-year-old urban black population of Cape Town and examine the change between 1990 and 2008/09 in 25-64-year-olds. METHODS: In 2008/09, a representative cross-sectional sample, stratified for age and sex, was randomly selected from the same townships sampled in 1990. Cardiovascular disease risk factors were determined by administered questionnaires, clinical measurements and fasting biochemical analyses. Logistic regression models evaluated the associations with hypertension. RESULTS: There were 1099 participants, 392 men and 707 women (response rate 86%) in 2008/09. Age-standardised hypertension prevalence was 38.9% (95% confidence interval (CI): 35.6-42.3) with similar rates in men and women. Among 25-64-year-olds, hypertension prevalence was significantly higher in 2008/09 (35.6%, 95% CI: 32.3-39.0) than in 1990 (21.6%, 95% CI: 18.6-24.9). In 2008/09, hypertension odds increased with older age, family history of hypertension, higher body mass index, problematic alcohol intake, physical inactivity and urbanisation. Among hypertensive participants, significantly more women than men were detected (69.5% vs. 32.7%), treated (55.7% vs. 21.9%) and controlled (32.4% vs. 10.4%) in 2008/09. There were minimal changes from 1990 except for improved control in 25-64-year-old women (1990∶14.1% vs. 2008/09∶31.5%). CONCLUSIONS: The high and rising hypertension burden in this population, its association with modifiable risk factors and the sub-optimal care provided highlight the urgent need to prioritise hypertension management. Innovative solutions with efficient and cost-effective healthcare delivery as well as population-based strategies are required.
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    Hypertension and diabetes: poor care for patients at community health centres
    (2008) Steyn, Krisela; Levitt, Naomi S; Patel, Maya; Fourie, Jean; Gwebushe, Nomonde; Lombard, Carl; Everett, Kathy
    Objectives. To identify health care provider-related determinants of diabetes and hypertension management in patients attending public sector community health centres (CHCs). Methods. A random sample of 18 CHCs in the Cape Peninsula providing hypertension and diabetes care was selected. Twenty-five patients with diabetes and 35 with hypertension per clinic were selected and interviewed by trained fieldworkers, and their medical records were audited. Regression analyses identified predictors of controlled hypertension (<140/90 mmHg) and diabetes (HbA1c <7%). In-depth interviews with nurses and doctors explored their experiences in working at the CHCs. Height, weight and blood pressure (BP) were measured for all patients and random blood samples collected for lipids, glucose, HbA1c and creatinine. Results. Of the participants 923 had hypertension and 455 diabetes (289 had both conditions). Of the hypertensive patients 33% had a BP <140/90 mmHg, while 42% of the patients with diabetes had non-fasting glucose levels below 11.1 mmol/l. Patients' knowledge about their conditions was poor. Prescriptions for drugs were not recorded in medical records of 22.6% of the patients with diabetes and 11.4% of those with hypertension. Conclusions. Primary care for patients with hypertension and diabetes at public sector CHCs is suboptimal. This study highlights the urgent need to improve health care for patients with these conditions in public sector clinics in the Cape Peninsula.
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    The major risk factors for coronary artery disease in the Coloureds of the Cape Peninsula : The CRISIC Study
    (1987) Steyn, Krisela
    A cross-sectional study of risk factors for coronary heart disease (CHD) in a random sample of 976 coloured people revealed a population greatly at risk of CHD. The major reversible risk factors were very common: 57% of men and 41% of women smoked, 17,2% of men and 18,4% of women were hypertensive (>160/95 mm Hg or receiving medication), and 17,4% of men and 16,2% of women had a total serum cholesterol value above 6,5 mmol/litre. The high cut-off points used to identify the above prevalence rate do not reflect the total population at risk. At lower but real levels of risk 94,6% of men and 89,8% of women carried some degree of CHD risk factors was found.
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    Prevalence, concordance and associations of chronic kidney disease by five estimators in South Africa
    (2020-08-27) Peer, Nasheeta; George, Jaya; Lombard, Carl; Steyn, Krisela; Levitt, Naomi; Kengne, Andre-Pascal
    Abstract Background To determine the prevalence, distribution, concordance and associations of chronic kidney disease (CKD) determined by five glomerular filtration rate (GFR) formulae in urban black residents of Cape Town. Methods Data collection in this cross-sectional study included interviews, clinical measurements and biochemical analyses, including serum creatinine and cystatin C levels. GFR was based on the CKD Epidemiology Collaboration (CKD-EPI) equations (CKD-EPI creatinine (CKD-EPIcr), CKD-EPI cystatin C (CKD-EPIcys), CKD-EPI creatinine-cystatins (CKD-EPIcr-cys)), Modification of Diet in Renal Disease (MDRD) and Cockcroft-Gault formula (CGF). GFR < 60 mL/min/1.73 m2 defined CKD. Results Among 392 men and 700 women, mean GFR, was between 114.0 (CKD-EPIcr) and 135.4 mL/min/1.73 m2 (CGF) in men, and between 107.5 (CKD-EPIcr-cys) and 173.4 mL/min/1.73 m2 (CGF) in women. CKD prevalence ranged from 2.3% (CKD-EPIcr and MDRD) to 5.1% (CKD-EPIcys) in men and 1.6% (CGF) to 6.7% (CKD-EPIcr-cys) in women. The kappa statistic was high between CKD-EPIcr and MDRD (0.934), and CKD-EPIcys and CKD-EPIcr-cys (0.815), but fair-to-moderate between the other eqs. (0.353–0.565). In the basic regressions, older age and body mass index ≥30 kg/m2, but not gender, were significantly associated with CKD-EPIcr-defined CKD. In the presence of these three variables, hypertension, heart rate ≥ 90 beats/minute, diabetes and low-density lipoprotein cholesterol were significant predictors of prevalent CKD. Conclusions Varying CKD prevalence estimates, because of different GFR equations used, underscores the need to improve accuracy of CKD diagnoses. Furthermore, screening for CKD should be incorporated into the routine assessment of high-risk patients such as those with hypertension or diabetes.
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    Rising diabetes prevalence among urban-dwelling black South Africans
    (Public Library of Science, 2012) Peer, Nasheeta; Steyn, Krisela; Lombard, Carl; Lambert, Estelle V; Vythilingum, Bavanisha; Levitt, Naomi S
    Objective: To examine the prevalence of and the association of psychosocial risk factors with diabetes in 25-74-year-old black Africans in Cape Town in 2008/09 and to compare the prevalence with a 1990 study. Research Design and METHODS: A randomly selected cross-sectional sample had oral glucose tolerance tests. The prevalence of diabetes (1998 WHO criteria), other cardiovascular risk factors and psychosocial measures, including sense of coherence (SOC), locus of control and adverse life events, were determined. The comparison of diabetes prevalence between this and a 1990 study used the 1985 WHO diabetes criteria. RESULTS: There were 1099 participants, 392 men and 707 women (response rate 86%). The age-standardised (SEGI) prevalence of diabetes was 13.1% (95% confidence interval (CI) 11.0-15.1), impaired glucose tolerance (IGT) 11.2% (9.2-13.1) and impaired fasting glycaemia 1.2% (0.6-1.9). Diabetes prevalence peaked in 65-74-year-olds (38.6%). Among diabetic participants, 57.9% were known and 38.6% treated. Using 1985 WHO criteria, age-standardised diabetes prevalence was higher by 53% in 2008/09 (12.2% (10.2-14.2)) compared to 1990 (8.0% (5.8-10.3)) and IGT by 67% (2008/09: 11.7% (9.8-13.7); 1990: 7.0% (4.9-9.1)). In women, older age (OR: 1.05, 95%CI: 1.03-1.08, p<0.001), diabetes family history (OR: 3.13, 95%CI: 1.92-5.12, p<0.001), higher BMI (OR: 1.44, 95%CI: 1.20-1.82, p = 0.001), better quality housing (OR: 2.08, 95%CI: 1.01-3.04, p = 0.047) and a lower SOC score (≤40) was positively associated with diabetes (OR: 2.57, 95%CI: 1.37-4.80, p = 0.003). Diabetes was not associated with the other psychosocial measures in women or with any psychosocial measure in men. Only older age (OR: 1.05, 95%CI: 1.02-1.08, p = 0.002) and higher BMI (OR: 1.10, 95%CI: 1.04-1.18, p = 0.003) were significantly associated with diabetes in men. CONCLUSIONS: The current high prevalence of diabetes in urban-dwelling South Africans, and the likelihood of further rises given the high rates of IGT and obesity, is concerning. Multi-facetted diabetes prevention strategies are essential to address this burden.
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    Strengthening public health in South Africa: building a stronger evidence base for improving the health of the nation
    (2007) Bradshaw, Debbie; Norman, Rosana; Lewin, Simon; Joubert, Jané; Schneider, Michelle; Nannan, Nadine; Groenewald, Pam; Laubscher, Ria; Matzopoulos, Richard; Nojilana, Beatrice; Pieterse, Desiréé; Steyn, Krisela
    An assessment of the relative burden attributable to selected risk factors provides an important evidence base for prioritising risk factors that should be targeted for public health interventions. Selecting interventions should be based on a robust and transparent process of scientific evaluations of their effectiveness, as well as assessment of their cost effectiveness, local applicability and appropriateness, and likely effects on health inequalities. Establishing such an evidence base is an ongoing process that is still at an early stage in South Africa. A recent review of disease control priorities for developing countries (DCPP) examined the global evidence regarding the effectiveness of interventions for major health burdens. Despite acknowledging the lack of intervention trials in developing countries, this DCPP review provides a unique resource for identifying interventions that might be useful in South Africa.
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    Trends in adult tobacco use from two South African demographic and health surveys conducted in 1998 and 2003
    (2009) Peer, Nasheeta; Bradshaw, Debbie; Laubscher, Ria; Steyn, Krisela
    Introduction: Since tobacco use peaked in the early 1990s in South Africa, it has declined significantly. This reduction has been attributed to the government’s comprehensive tobacco control policies that were introduced in the 1990s. Objective: To assess the pattern of tobacco use between the South African Demographic and Health Surveys in 1998 and 2003. Methods: Multi-stage sampling was used to select approximately 11 000 households in cross-sectional national surveys. Face-to-face interviews, conducted with 13 826 adults (41% men) aged ≥15 years in 1998 and 8 115 (42% men) in 2003, included questions on tobacco use according to the WHO STEP-wise surveillance programme. Logistic regression analysis was used to assess the independent effects of selected characteristics on smoking prevalence. Results: Daily or occasional smoking prevalence among women remained unchanged at 10-11%; among men it decreased from 42% (1998) to 35% (2003). The decline for men was significant among the poorest and those aged 25-44 years. Strong age patterns were observed, peaking at 35-44 years, which was reduced for men in 2003. Higher income and education were associated with low prevalence of smoking while living in urban areas was associated with higher rates. African men and women smoked significantly less than other population groups. Conclusion: Despite decreasing smoking rates in some subgroups, a gap exists in the efforts to reduce tobacco use as smoking rates have remained unchanged in women and young adults, aged 15-24 years.