Browsing by Author "Schlechter, Anton"

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    An investigation into the moderating role of psychological safety on the relationship between job demands and job resources and intention to quit
    (2021) Domela- Serobanyane, Malinda; Schlechter, Anton
    Background Employee turnover has been a major concern for organisations as far as a global competitive advantage is concerned. Amongst the proximal antecedents of turnover, intention to quit has been determined to exhibit the feelings and perceptions of employees concerning alternatives for the possibility of quitting the current employment relationship. Globally, an increasing portion of employees experiences some form of work overload, emotional and technological demands at the workplace, consequential in the feelings of being vulnerable and insecure. The current study, therefore, investigated the moderating role of pf psychological safety in the relationship between job demands, job resources, and intention to quit. The rationale for the research study Knowledge as to whether job demand and job resources have implications for employee retention will make it possible for practitioners to devise strategies to ensure that employees' level of intention to quit is reduced. For instance, to ensure that job demands are managed to prevent emotional and physical drain and consequently intention to quit. To ensure that employees are offered access in terms of resources to improve their motivation, and thereby reduce the intention to quit. Moreover, knowledge and consideration of the moderating effect of psychological safety on the relationship between job demands and job resources will allow managers to enhance retention strategies and thus provide assurance for higher organisational productivity. Aim of the study The current research study was an exploratory attempt to investigate the moderating effect of psychological safety on the relationship between job demands, job resources, and intention to quit. Whereas the existing literature on conservation resources theory provides valuable frameworks for understanding intention to quit, few researchers have investigated how the intention to quit may be influenced by job demands and job resources, through the mediating effect of psychological safety. Research Design, Sampling, and realised sample The cross-sectional study was used in the current research study as a quantitative approach through descriptive statistics to measure the relationship between intention to quit, job demands, and resources, and this associated being moderated by psychological safety. In other words, by applying descriptive statistics, the cross-section design was used in the current study to enable a detailed analysis of the variables in a systematic and standardised manner (ZangirolamiRaimundo, Echeimberg, & Leone, 2018). This research implemented a structured questionnaire method to get primary data. In other words, the respondents were asked to respond to similar questions in a prearranged manner (Doyle, 2009). A realised sample of n= 114 from the central banking environment was obtained using a convenience sampling approach. Statistical analyses To statistically analyse data, the Statistical Package for the Social Science (SPSS) programme was used. Exploratory Factor Analysis discovered common factors among the items; factor analysis was used to identify common variances. Through direct extraction and rotation methods to improve the interpretation of the factor loadings to reduce ambiguities in the initial analysis. The reliability and validity of the intention to quit, job demands-resources, and psychological safety were assessed through coefficient alpha and factor analysis. In other words, in evaluating the results, the test of reliability data was conducted to determine the Cronbach alpha, which would be acceptable when found to be at a minimum of 0.7 (Taber, 2018). Descriptive and correlational designs were used to provide analysis of data. First to classify and summarise data, and secondly to determine and test for the relationship between intention to quit, job demands-resources and psychological safety as variables of this study Results In investigating the association between job demands (work overload and technological demands) and intention to quit, correlation analysis results indicated a weak and negative relationship between technological demand and intention to quit. to determine whether job resources (job autonomy and performance feedback) would be able to predict the intention to quit, the multiple regression model was performed. Although a weak and negative correlation between job resources and intention to quit existed, there was no sufficient evidence that job resources could be a good predictor of intention to quit since the regression model highlighted an insignificant value of 0.411 which is greater than 0.05. The multiple regression highlighted that when psychological safety was introduced, it was found that combined psychological safety and job demand were good predictors of intention to quit and it was significant at 0.05 since the significance level of the model was 0.03. The multiple regression highlighted that when psychological safety was introduced, it was found that combined psychological safety and job demand were good predictors of intention to quit and it was significant at 0.05 since the significance level of the model was 0.02. Findings The findings from the results supported various discussions and studies in the literature and practice, that psychological safety moderates the relationship between job demands, job resources, and intention to quit. Further evidence was also found in support of the conservation of resources theory. Managerial Implications The results of the present research study embrace a practical implication for organisations in that the findings support the literature suggesting that psychological safety moderates the relationship between job demands, job resources, and intention to quit. The findings further contribute to a growing body of knowledge surrounding intention to quit, job demands, job resources, and psychological safety fields of research.
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    An Investigation into the Relationship between Workplace Friendships, Affective Organisational Commitment, Helping Behaviour, and Intention to Stay
    (2023) Van Der Horst, Megan; Schlechter, Anton
    Orientation: In order to effectively engage in the so-called ‘war for talent', organisations need to understand the various factors which result in desirable organisational outcomes, such as those related to employee engagement and retention. As human beings are inherently social, their access to and experience of workplace friendships may introduce the various emotional, cognitive and behavioural benefits associated with friendships in one's personal life to the workplace. Research Purpose: To conduct an empirical study using a sample obtained from the general working population to investigate the direct relationship between workplace friendships and intention to stay, as well as the indirect relationship mediated by helping behaviour and affective organisational commitment. Rationale for the Study: Developing a better understanding of the relationship between workplace friendships and employees' intention to stay may assist organisations in putting interventions in place to increase employees' intention to stay, ultimately reducing employee turnover. Despite compelling evidence that having a friend at work holds several potential benefits for both individuals (e.g., lower levels of stress) and organisations (e.g., improved job and organisational performance), approximately 40% of employees report not having a friend in the workplace. Therefore, there is room for an investigation into this phenomenon which, although seemingly scarce, holds the potential to provide various benefits to both individual employees and organisations. Method: A descriptive research design and quantitative cross-sectional research approach were employed to investigate the direct relationship between workplace friendships and intention to stay and the indirect relationships mediated by helping behaviour and affective organisational commitment. Based on evidence found in the literature, personality was considered an important extraneous or confounding variable in these relationships, and, therefore, the analyses were conducted both by controlling for personality and not. An online questionnaire was designed, and judgement sampling was employed to collect data across the general working population (n = 216). The data were analysed using descriptive statistics, correlation analyses and multiple regression analyses. Main Findings: A significant positive relationship was found between workplace friendships and intention to stay. It was further found that affective organisational commitment significantly mediated the indirect relationship between workplace friendships and intention to stay. The indirect relationship mediated by helping behaviour was not found to be significant. Workplace friendships and helping behaviours were, however, found to be significantly correlated with one another. Furthermore, albeit slightly weaker, statistically significant relationships between the constructs of interest were found after controlling for personality. Contribution: The current study has contributed to organisational behaviour literature on the role of, and associated benefits of, workplace friendships for both employees, as well as organisations, being an antecedent of intention to stay, affective organisational commitment and helping behaviour. Importantly, by considering the confounding role of personality on the relationships of interest and viewing personality as a covariant, the current study further contributes to the literature by considering the above-mentioned relationships while controlling for the effect of personality. Furthermore, the current study's findings may be pertinent to human resource management practitioners, general managers, and industrial/organisational psychologists in pursuit of the various benefits associated with workplace friendships. These results will, hopefully, be used to make recommendations to organisations on how they could encourage the establishment and maintenance of workplace friendships, as well as the benefits thereof, in such that workplace friendships become a positive contributor to employee wellbeing and organisational effectiveness. Recommendations for Future Studies: The current study illuminates several additional questions which could be addressed in future studies, such as, why employees do not make friends at work to the same extent that they do in their personal lives. Furthermore, the impact of Covid-19-related changes on how employees work and interact should be investigated by researching workplace friendships in alignment with employees working in a hybrid or fully remote arrangement. Whether the associated benefits deem the associated efforts of each friendship type worthwhile, as well as negative individual and organisational outcomes or consequences of workplace friendships should also be addressed by future studies to gain a more holistic understanding of the potential costs and benefits of workplace friendships. The inclusion of a qualitative component to the research, could allow future researchers to gain a deeper understanding of the factors that relate to the constructs of interest. Finally, future research should investigate variables of interest across different countries, cultures and contexts to contribute to literature and expand the understanding of these relationships in the workplace. Managerial Implications: By developing organisational strategies aimed at creating opportunities for friendships formation and nurturing such friendships once formed, employers may be able to increase the presence of helping behaviour, as well as the level of affective organisational commitment among employees, ultimately increasing talent retention and mitigating the direct and indirect turnover-related costs.
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    Comparing the use of technology-based vs traditional team building interventions in developing group problem-solving and learning behaviours: insights from two experimental studies
    (2021) Sellier, Matthew; Schlechter, Anton
    The increasing reliance on technology for communication seems to have shown that nontechnology or traditional team building activities may not be effective in improving certain interpersonal skills (Klein et al., 2009). The researcher investigated whether the use of a serious game, i.e. an educational video game, is a better mode of delivery to improve group problem solving, team cohesiveness, team learning behaviours and, perceived team psychological safety rather than traditional team building intervention, i.e. a non-technology-based team building intervention (Emsley & Rumeser, 2018; Edmondson, 1999). The researcher conducted two post test only quasi-experiments to compare the methods of team-building. In Study 1, four teams of university students (n=15 total students) took part in either a serious game or a traditional team building intervention. The serious game was based on a scavenger hunt mobile application while the traditional team building activity was an obstacle course. Each team was assessed, after the team building interventions, on their group problem-solving skills and team cohesiveness in order to determine if there was a significant difference between the scores of the two dimensions above for intervention groups. Study 2 consisted of six teams of university students (n=30 total students) participated in either a traditional online team-building activity or an online team-based serious game. The traditional online team-building activity was a spectrum mapping activity, and the online team-based serious game was an online escape room. Each team then participated in the same thought experiment and were finally asked to answer a questionnaire. Furthermore, a field researcher participated in both activities and her experiences were noted through an interview. There did not seem to be sufficient evidence to support the hypotheses for the second quasi experiment. However, the was evidence collected throughout both quasi-experiments that suggests that serious games are more enjoyed by participants and there seems to be a clearer initiative to utilise the interpersonal skills acquired in the future.
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    A cut too deep? A qualitative enquiry into the experience of multiple organisational restructurings in the South African oil industry: a case study
    (2017) Tooke, Janet; Goodman, Suki; Schlechter, Anton
    This dissertation reports the findings of a study which sought to investigate the experiences of people who were exposed to multiple restructurings in the South African oil industry. Although there is a substantial amount of research on restructurings worldwide, an extensive review of available literature highlighted a dearth of research on multiple restructurings. Investigation of this research question was undertaken using a case study and qualitative research method. In-depth interviews of six employees of an oil company in South Africa were undertaken. Through these interviews, the personal experiences of employees who had been exposed to multiple restructurings were analysed. Similarly, interviews were undertaken with two members of senior management responsible for the implementation of a number of the restructurings. Their interview responses provided insight into the company's rationale for undertaking multiple restructurings. The results of the research indicated that distrust and cynicism grew amongst employees with repeated exposure to restructurings. The interview participants perceived that many remaining employees suffered from feelings of survivor's guilt and low morale and results indicated that the company did little to assist these employees to cope with these feelings. The research findings indicated that loss of corporate memory created role ambiguity and tension between departments as portfolios were redistributed amongst employees. Employee workloads were dramatically increased resulting in further stress and stress-related health problems, absenteeism and resignation. Participants of the research believed that the senior leadership team were ill-equipped to run a restructuring process and the employee consultation process appeared to do nothing to improve employees' trust in management. The results of this research highlighted the perception of the participants that repeated restructurings fail to achieve performance improvement at companies. Instead, the results indicated that repeated restructurings appear to lead to poor employee morale, resultant poor productivity and a high level of intention to quit. Companies should explore alternatives before embarking on a restructuring process as a first choice to alleviate cost pressures (Burke and Nelson, 1997; Von Krogh & Kameny, 2002). Where restructuring is inevitable, it is a recommendation of this research that training and counselling of remaining employees be given priority to assist with the management of stress and other symptoms of survivor sickness.
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    Developing a competency model for head of departments at tertiary education institutions in South Africa
    (2013) Croucamp, Adéle; Schlechter, Anton
    The increase in complexity of the Tertiary Education landscape has increased the pressure to perform. This forces employees on all management levels within Tertiary Education institutions to be highly competent and efficient. Excellent academic leadership is needed from all levels of management to reach strategic goals and to build the local and international profile of the university. The objectives of this study are firstly to determine which competencies are needed by Heads of Departments / Directors of Schools at South African Universities, and secondly to develop a proposed competency profile for Heads of Departments / Directors of Schools in Tertiary Education institutions in South Africa. Research design - A quantitative research approach adopting an explorative design was used and the data was collected via convenience sampling by way of an online questionnaire. Heads of Departments and School Directors completed the questionnaire (n = 37). Data from the questionnaire was analysed using descriptive statistics, t-tests and ANOVAs. The results of the descriptive statistics revealed that respondents considered the most relevant competency to have is Integrity, which falls within the Ethic and Values subscale. Leadership / Management Competencies as well as competencies from the Enabling Competencies subscale were identified as the 41st most relevant competencies. Functional competencies (Quality Assurance) only score from the 42nd place on the ranking order list. In a theoretical domain this study will prepare the ground for future studies, specifically those for developing training and development modules that will help to address the competencies that are lacking. In a practical domain this study will help universities to appoint more qualified Heads of Departments / School Directors and therefore establish a stronger and more efficient management structure to help the university to achieve strategic objectives.
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    The effect of company performance and executive remuneration on employee's perceptions of fairness in the South African financial services industry
    (2015) Magee, Ryan; Schlechter, Anton
    The main objective of the present study, which was conducted within the South African financial services industry was to establish whether executive remuneration (consisting of basic salary and short-term incentive bonuses) and company performance (in terms of return on equity) affects employees' perceptions of fairness. In the South African context there are many senior executives that in most peoples' opinion earn excessive salaries and bonuses, this while the organisations' that they lead perform poorly. As a consequence of their organisation performing badly, employees need to be retrenched, yet executives seemingly do not forego or even reduce their salaries or bonuses in order to retain employees and improve the organisation's bottom line. The widely publisicised (often extreme) examples of this, illustrate and are explained by the disconnect that is currently taking place globally, specifically in South Africa. This disconnect is that of inequality of wealth between the rich and the poor as measured by the Gini Coefficient, in which South Africa is now ranked the most inequal country in the world. The aim of the present study is to better understand some of the dynamics that influence perceptions of fairness in such scenarios. The present study has implications for organisations in terms of distributive justice outcomes, Human Resources practices and policies, as well various impacts on employee motivation and satisfaction.
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    Financial vs Non-Financial Gifts and Workers' Performance: An Experimental Analysis of Reciprocity in the Workplace
    (2021) Thompson, Megan; Schlechter, Anton
    Background and research orientation, rationale and objectives. Gift giving or reciprocity is widely used in organisations as an attempt to further improve employee performance and productivity, which is ultimately believed to result in higher levels of organisational performance and success. Reciprocity theory, or the gift exchange view, assumes that employees and organisations pursue that which is in their own material self-interest. Reciprocity research is, however, still largely dominated by research focusing on the impact of financial rewards, despite major reward theories, models and approaches that increasingly emphasise the importance of both financial and non-financial rewards in attraction, employee engagement or motivation and retention. The aim of the current research study was to investigate the extent to which employees reciprocate discretionary effort, as indicated by higher levels of productivity, after receiving either a financial or non-financial gift or reward. Moreover, the impact of receiving either a financial or non-financial reward on perceived levels of both employee motivation and job satisfaction was measured, as well as to determine reward preference which was considered more motivating and satisfying. Research approach. The present study made use of an experimental research approach, more so, a controlled field experiment in a naturally occurring work environment. Both quantitative and qualitative data were collected from employees to measure their perceived levels of motivation and job satisfaction. Productivity data was provided by the organisation employing the employees to determine the impact of the financial or non-financial reward. Composite questionnaires consisting of open-ended questions and Likert-type questions were distributed using a convenience, non-probability sampling approach. All completed questionnaires, along with the provided productivity data, were analysed using descriptive statistics, inferential statistics and content analysis. Main findings. Results of the research study indicated a significant difference in employees perceived level of motivation and job satisfaction after receiving a financial or non-financial gift. Thus, employees experienced greater levels of motivation and job satisfaction after receiving a financial or non-financial gift. Results furthermore showed that employees were more productive after receiving the gift, although the productivity did not shift any different whether they received the financial or non-financial gift. Thus, employee reciprocated discretionary effort after receiving a gift. A statistically significant association was found between the gift employees received and the gift they desired, with the likelihood of receiving a particular gift and desiring that specific gift not being random, but rather due to psychological feelings of appreciation.
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    A formative theory evaluation of a staff reward and recognition programme
    (2008) Salie, Saleemah; Schlechter, Anton
    This formative theory evaluation investigated the feasibility of the programme theory underlying a staff reward and recognition intervention within a retail setting. It contained academic literature which discussed the effects of reward and recognition programmes on motivation and turnover. In addition, best practice guidelines for motivational reward and recognition programmes were used as measure of comparison against the programme's theory. The evaluation questions contained in this dissertation covered various programme evaluation elements and assisted in evaluating the programme's theory.
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    Investigating talent attraction: percieved attractiveness of non-financial reward elements by means of an experimental design
    (2014) Thompson, Nicola Claire; Schlechter, Anton
    The changing nature of work and an increased global need for organisations to remain competitive in the war for scarce skills and talent has influenced the manner in which organisations manage their talent. Organisations are altering their strategic imperatives to include more effective and highly attractive reward packages that attract top talented employees. As a result this could increase their competitive advantage in the market. Lately however, financial rewards and money is no longer enough to attract, motivate or retain employees. These changes have led organisations to seek out non-financial attraction rewards that are most effective in harnessing top talent. The main objective of this study was to establish which non-financial rewards and what combinations of these rewards were perceived to be most attractive to employees when considering a job offering. A secondary objective was to establish which non-financial rewards were most attractive to various demographic groups namely: gender, race, and age.
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    Investigating the relationship between pay disparity and organisational performance
    (2023) Ball, Ashleigh; Schlechter, Anton
    Background. Globally, executive remuneration or compensation (the terms are used interchangeably) has increasingly come under public scrutiny over the past few years, prompting stricter executive remuneration reporting standards for listed organisations. However, despite fair pay regulations meant to address the large disparity in income between executives and employees lower down in the organisational hierarchy, executives continue to earn many more times than the average employee – as much as 300 times more (BusinessTech, 2020). Aim of the study. The aim of the present study was to investigate the relationship between pay disparity and organisational performance. Method. An exploratory research design was utilised for the purposes of the present study. Using purposive non-probability or judgement sampling, a sample of corporate organisations (n=185) that are listed on the Johannesburg Stock Exchange (JSE) were identified. Secondary quantitative data were collected from each of the organisation's publicly available Integrated Financial Statements. To investigate the relationship between pay disparity and selected organisational accounting performance measures (incl. EBITDA, ROI, ROA, EVA and Price/EBITDA), Pearson Product Moment correlation analyses, followed by multiple regression analyses, were conducted. Results. A significant positive relationship was found between pay disparity and organisational performance, as measured by EBITDA. This relationship was investigated within the various sectors of the JSE, and it was found that the telecommunications sector had the strongest significant positive relationship between pay disparity and organisational performance. In several sectors, including healthcare, energy and technology, evidence of a significant relationship between the two variables was not found. Contribution. Scholars are divided on the effects pay disparity (i.e. the difference between executive remuneration and that of the average employee) has on organisation performance. Some authors, most often using tournament theory, argue there is a positive relationship between pay disparity and organisational performance. In support of this notion, several studies have found a significant positive relationship between pay disparity and organisational accounting performance measures. However, several studies have reported a significant negative relationship between pay disparity and organisational accounting performance measures. Authors that hold this view most often use equity theory to substantiate their arguments. The latter relationship is hypothesised to be true in the current study amongst South African organisations listed on the JSE. South Africa has some of the highest rates of inequality in the world, as well as some of the largest pay gap ratios in its organisations. Studies show that employees may foster negative attitudes towards their work when they feel they are not being remunerated fairly compared to their superiors. The findings of the present study hopefully provided new insights on the possible behavioural implications of pay disparity within organisations. Keywords Pay Disparity, Executive Compensation, Pay Gap Ratio
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    Investigating the relationship between social ties and intention to quit as mediated by job embeddedness: A study conducted within the pharmaceutical industry
    (2015) Matthews, Margien Elisabeth; Schlechter, Anton
    Orientation: In order to maintain a competitive advantage, employers need to understand the various factors (antecedents) that are conducive to employee retention and engagement. Social ties is one such factor that is believed to be related to job embeddedness and the intention to quit. Better understanding the role that social ties play in employee engagement and the intention to quit will hopefully aid the development of effective retention strategies. Research Purpose: An empirical study was conducted, within a sample obtained from the pharmaceutical industry, to investigate the relationship between social ties and intention to quit as mediated by job embeddedness. Motivation for the Study: The pharmaceutical industry is experiencing severe skills shortages, particularly in terms of pharmacists. Developing a better understanding of the role that social ties play in employee retention may assist these organisations in putting interventions in place to reduce undesirable voluntary employee turnover. Method: A quantitative research approach was employed to investigate the broad research question i.e. if the relationship between organisational and occupational social ties and intention to quit is mediated by organisational and occupational job embeddedness. A descriptive research design was employed and a questionnaire consisting of 36 items was designed using existing measures, to collect data. The questionnaire was distributed on l in e and convenience sampling was used to collect data across the pharmaceutical industry (n = 524). Data were analysed using descriptive statistics, correlations analyses and multiple regression analysis. Main Findings: Significant negative relationships were found between organisational social ties and intention to quit, and between occupational social ties and intention to quit. It was further found that organisational job embeddedness completely mediated the relationship between organisational social ties and intention to quit. Occupational job embeddedness completely mediated the relationship between occupational social ties and intention to quit. Practical / Managerial Implications: The value of social ties in an organisational setting is an under-researched aspect of employee retention. By developing retention strategies aimed at enhancing organisational ties and by facilitating occupational ties with co-workers, employers may be able to reduce turnover and so retain scarce skills. Contribution: The present study contributes to the current body of social science research as few studies have empirically demonstrated the mediating role of job embeddedness in the relationship between social ties and intention to quit. There is also limited empirical research conducted in South Africa that has investigated the relationships between organisational and occupational social ties, organisational and occupational job embeddedness and intention to quit. These results will hopefully be used to develop more effective retention strategies in the pharmaceutical industry.
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    Investigating the use of generational cohort theory to identify total reward preferences
    (2018) Davids, Aayesha; Schlechter, Anton
    Background: Anecdotal accounts of stereotypes and/or generalisations about perceived generational differences within the workplace have become commonplace. Generational cohort theories are often used to identify generational cohorts of employees that are argued to be different, including having differing expectations, needs, preferences and even values. In addressing and/or accommodating such individual differences organisations are increasingly adopting strategies and interventions that take such generational differences amongst employees into account (Costanza & Finkelstein, 2015). Addressing generational differences within the workplace has particularly become popular in the design and implementation of total reward or remuneration and recognition strategies, policies and practices. Understanding generational and/or demographic characteristics, specifically differences, that create distinct cohorts allow organisations to design reward and recognition packages that create distinctly unique value for their employees. Offering tailored or more focused reward strategies and practices, designed with individual differences in mind are believed to enhance attraction, employee engagement and retention and so allow an organisation to bolster its competitive advantage and contribute to sustained organisational success (Snelgar, Renard, & Venter, 2013). In support of this notion, empirical studies are showing promising results for targeted reward strategies and practices. Rationale for the Research Study Effective talent management, i.e. attracting, engaging and retaining sought-after highly skilled employees is critical for the success of any organisation. However, organisations are increasingly experiencing challenges in recruiting, motivating and retaining scarce human capital, colloquially referred to as talent (Barkhuizen, 2014). Failure on the part of organisations to understand and adapt to differences in the workforce may result in them not being able to attract the talent required; keep employees motivated and engaged; and experience unintended employee turnover which is associated with notable direct and indirect costs for them (Westerman & Yamamura, 2007). Organisations, therefore, are constantly searching for new and innovative approaches to more effectively attract, retain and engage employees (Snelgar et al., 2013). There is a growing body of research (Haynes, 2011; Snelgar, Renard, & Venter, 2013) that has shown that identifying distinct reward and recognition preferences amongst cohorts of employees and targeting reward and recognition strategies accordingly, is showing promising potential in this regard. When designing and implementing targeted approaches to reward and recognition, employee cohorts are most often identified using generational cohort theory, i.e. using various established guidelines to group employees into generational cohorts that are believed to be distinctly different to one another, while those within these groups being more similar than not. Results obtained from studies using these various employee cohorts as a framework have been used to inform the design of targeted reward and recognition practices and policies. Generational cohort theory is, however, mostly grounded on a set of historical events that took place in the United States of America (USA). Despite this, the American-based framework used to identify individuals belonging to various generations has been adopted globally, both within organisations and even used in research studies published in peer-reviewed literature. However, several authors have criticised the indiscriminate use of a popular American-based generational framework, i.e. focusing on events affecting Americans arguing that this has resulted in a somewhat narrow or even skewed view generational cohorts. These authors have gone as far as to argue that the American-based generational framework may not be appropriate or ineffective outside of the USA at all (Close, 2015). Following this reasoning, they have called for alternative frameworks that create distinct generational cohorts relevant in contexts outside of America, i.e. based on different events and criteria more applicable to those contexts. Aim of the research study The aim of the present study was to investigate the reward preferences of a broad range of employees in an effort to assess whether the popular generational model of Strauss and Howe (1991) is relevant and/or as effective in a non-American context, as well as to possibly find support for alternative perspectives or approaches to identify distinct generational cohorts in organisations that may be more appropriate and/or effective when designing reward offerings for different cohorts of employees. Given time and cost constraints, South Africa was chosen to investigate this claim given that it is a developing economy (vs the USA being a developed economy) and has a different set of notable events that have shaped its history to that which is applicable to the USA. Given the aim of the present study, an exploratory research design was considered most appropriate to investigate generational cohort theory within a non-American context as a framework to identify employee groups/cohorts that have distinctly different total reward preferences. For the purposes of the present study, it was decided that a quantitative approach would be followed as it is most useful to draw conclusions or inferences related to the total reward preferences of employee groups/cohorts. The present study followed a non–probability or convenience sampling approach with a realised sample of 169 respondents. The majority of respondents were Coloured and were further female, with majority of attaining a qualification post matric. Main results and findings A one-way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) revealed no statistically significant difference between the generational groups based on the popular generational model of Strauss and Howe (1991), nor for a proposed generational cohort framework that was designed for the purposes of the present study and which was based on notable South African historical events. Following a data-driven exploratory approach, cluster analysis, on the other hand, yielded three distinct generational cohorts based on their perceived reward preferences for typical total rewards elements. Significant differences in the total reward preferences of respondents born after 1994 and those before 1994. Choice-based modelling (choice-based conjoint analysis) revealed that most respondents considered financial rewards as being the two most preferred total reward elements for them, including remuneration (guaranteed pay) followed by benefits and then non-financial rewards (work-life balance being the most preferred non-financial reward preference). Theoretical and Practical Implications Numerous research studies have made use of the popular American-based generational model to identify the reward preferences of cohort groups, without taking into account context-specific variables. There is further a dearth of empirical research that has been conducted to investigate generational cohort theory specifically, while none were found that were conducted in developing economies, such as South Africa. The present study address this gap in current literature. The use of choice-based modelling or choice-based conjoint analysis, furthermore, makes a methodological contribution given that this method is seldom found in total reward preference studies. This method was shown to identify total reward preferences that could not be determined using a field-survey or questionnaire. Choice-based modelling is different to typical survey approaches in that it is better able to replicate human decision making, i.e. assessing relative importance of attributes and levels based on combinations of choices and related sacrifices that humans deal with when making a choice-decision. In terms of the practical contribution of the present study, the results provide insights for organisations that may be incorporated when designing differentiated total reward strategies to accommodate and/or address the needs of the different generational groups.
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    Organisational context : a moderator of leadership style, leader emotional intelligence and trust in the leader
    (2006) Glass, Monique; Schlechter, Anton
    Trust is proposed as being a critical determinant of organisational success and stability and has been asserted as contributing to employee wellness (Shaw, 1997). Furthermore, trust has been related to a number of positive outcomes such as employee satisfaction, organisational commitment and organisational citizenship behaviour (Gillespie & Mann, 2004). These findings have stimulated the exploration of how factors such as leadershipstyle and leader emotional intelligence are related to trust in the leader and whether or not organisational context is a moderator of these relationships. Quantitative data was collected from two hospitals in the Western Cape. The current study found that organisational context, in the form of the low- and high-velocity context, did to some extent moderate the relationship between leadership style, leader emotional intelligence and trust in the leader.Transformational leadership and leader emotional intelligence were found to have the strongest correlations with trust in the leader. Furthermore, leader emotional intelligence was found to be the greatest predictor of trust in the leader. In order to cultivate high levels of trust and obtain the aforementioned outcomes, nurse leaders should focus on developing a more transformational leadership style and higher levels of emotional intelligence.
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    An outcome evaluation of the maternal care manual of the Perinatal Education Programme (PEP)
    (2008) Rundare, Alfeous; Goodman, Suki; Schlechter, Anton
    This study presents an outcome evaluation of the maternal care manual of the Perinatal Education Programme (PEP) studies by 32 midwives at Mowbray Maternity Hospital, a training facility in Cape Town, South Africa. Pre-and-post course knowledge assessments and a survey of participants were used to evaluate the maternal care manual of the PEP. Knowledge assessment scores achieved by the midwives before and after the course were compared. This was done to measure the knowledge acquisition of midwives who participated in the programme. In addition, a broader survey was administered to the participants in order to map out the perceived gain in knowledge, clinical skills and acceptability of the programme. The study found out that the midwives who attended the course improved their knowledge in maternal care.
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    Predicting employee voluntary turnover using human resources data
    (2012) Syce, Chantal; Schlechter, Anton
    The current research attempted to answer the following question: Can voluntary employee turnover be predicted? The study made use of regression analyses to examine the relationship between employee turnover and a range of worker demographics. Data covering 2 592 employees in a South African general insurer formed the basis for the analysis. Several demographic variables (available in the HR management information system), were identified and investigated with the aim to develop a voluntary turnover prediction model. Fourteen variables were identified in the human resources information system to be included for analysis. From 14 potential predictors, the procedure selected only five variables, i.e. cost centre, years of service, performance, age and tenure - family size interaction for inclusion in the regression equation.
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    Predictors of sensitivity towards being the target of upward comparison (STTUC): a study of female employees in Botswana
    (2012) Pheko, Mpho Mmannana; Schlechter, Anton
    Research has examined various factors that may inhibit the career progress of females but, as far as the researcher has been able to ascertain, STTUC has not been sufficiently investigated as a factor that may hamper such progress. This study suggests such a focus because the work setting constantly places individuals in positions where they are obliged to present their abilities and/or achievements. In order to address the evident gap in existing research, this study investigated the STTUC framework within the organisational context in Botswana, Africa. The main aim of this study was to investigate the antecedents of STTUC and to explore gender differences in the STTUC experiences of black employees in Botswana. The antecedents explored included individual characteristics (specifically, collectivistic cultural orientation, traditional gender role orientation, affiliative needs, interpersonal sensitivity and competitiveness), family-work variables (specifically, instrumental support from the spouse/partner and family-work conflict), and organisational variables (focusing specifically on masculine values within the organisational culture).
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    Preparing for the fourth industrial revolution: Investigating the relationship between leadership 4.0, innovative management practices and organisational performance capabilities
    (2020) Pienaar, Yandri; Schlechter, Anton
    Background It is believed that the fourth industrial revolution (4IR) will bring about unprecedented change to the world, ultimately having such a deep impact that some argue it may change human life at its core. It is believed that many organisations will not survive the radical disruption that will ensue. On the contrary, some authors have argued that the 4IR will bring about many benefits and opportunities for organisations, as with previous revolutions, provided it is managed effectively by business leaders. Rationale for the research study There is a growing consensus that existing leadership styles and management practices may not be suitable for organisational performance for the 4IR. It has, therefore, been suggested that different theories, models or approaches to leadership will be required if organisations are to remain competitive and sustainably successful in a business context that will look very different to what leaders have been accustomed to. It is argued here that Leadership 4.0 and innovative management practices, may have merit in this context. Aim of the study This present study was an exploratory attempt to investigate the relationship between Leadership 4.0, innovative management practices and organisational performance capabilities for the 4IR. For the purposes of this study, 1) a range of leadership theories/models/approaches/styles, including Transactional Leadership, Transformational Leadership and Leadership 4.0; 2) innovative management practices, including human resource management, organising and information sharing, risk management and stakeholder management as they compare to the old and new economy; and 3) organisational performance capabilities, including human capital, digital risk management and business model value creation were investigated. Research Design, Sampling and realised sample An exploratory research design was followed, utilising a mixed method approach. A crosssectional approach was taken to data collection, with a composite questionnaire designed for the purpose of this study utilised to collect data. A realised sample of n=61 respondents, mainly 4 from local, privately owned, knowledge-intensive organisations was obtained using a convenience sampling approach. Statistical analyses Pearson correlation and hierarchical multiple regression were utilised to estimate the relationships among the abovementioned constructs. Mediation analyses utilising the PROCESS macro was employed to test whether the relationship between Leadership 4.0 and organisational performance capabilities was mediated through innovative management practices. Results Statistically significant positive relationships were found between Leadership 4.0, Innovative Management Practices and Organisational Performance Capabilities. A regression model indicated that Leadership styles statistically significantly predicted the most variance in Organisational Performance Capabilities. Results further determined that Transactional Leadership explained a unique variance in risk management and digital risk management. Lastly, the test for mediation indicated that innovative management practices partially mediated the relationship between Leadership 4.0 and organisational performance capabilities. Findings: Findings from the results supported various discussions and studies in the literature and in practice that leadership, specifically Leadership 4.0, is an important element to navigating the uncertainties and challenges presented by the 4IR. Further evidence was also found in support of contingent leadership theories. Managerial Implications The findings of the present research study holds a practical implication for organisations in that the findings support the literature suggesting that leadership is a key element in organisational performance capabilities, specifically for survival and sustainability for the 4IR. The findings further contributes to a growing body of knowledge surrounding the 4IR, leadership, innovative management practices and organisational performance fields of research.
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    The relationship between cultural orientation and reward preference: a study conducted in South Africa and the Netherlands
    (2016) Van Eijk, Jeff; Schlechter, Anton
    Orientation: Organisations operating in multiple countries and continents, referred to as multinationals, often experience cultural barriers when interacting with employees from the host county. These barriers, in turn, frequently result in counterproductive outcomes for the organisation. Being able to adapt Human Resource (HR) policies and practices to the cultural values and norms of the host country, multinationals will be better able to attract, motivate and retain their host country employees and achieve the strategic objectives they have set. Research purpose: The aim of the current study was to investigate the relationship between an individual's reward preference and his/her cultural orientation by means of a novel methodological approach, while further investigating this relationship in two culturally distinct countries to allow for a comparison to be made. Motivation for the study: Research linking rewards to cultural orientation is characterised by mixed findings, which could be related to cross-cultural measurement issues (for example, issues of level of analysis and the reference-group effect). By measuring at an individual level of analysis and exploring the use of choice-based conjoint analysis, the present study aimed to advance the field of cross-cultural remuneration research. The study aimed to show that, by linking cultural orientation and reward preference, multinationals can be helped to optimize their remuneration policies and practices in a way that brings about desired organisational outcomes. Research design: A descriptive research design using quantitative methods was employed. Data was collected from employees in both South Africa (n = 132) and the Netherlands (n = 152). Survey items, responded to on a Likert-type response scale were used to measure an individual's reward preference and cultural orientation. To explore the potential bias introduced by the reference-group effect in cross-cultural reward research, a choice-based conjoint analysis was included to measure reward preference. Data from the field survey was analysed using descriptive and inferential statistics. Choice-based conjoint analysis was used to determine the relative importance of each reward element. Main findings: The results of the Multiple Regression analysis revealed that certain cultural orientations were significantly positively related to reward preference. These included the relationship between collectivism and group bonuses; uncertainty avoidance and job security; uncertainty avoidance and base pay; and long-term orientation and future oriented rewards. Uncertainty avoidance and long-term orientation were positively related to financiallyoriented reward elements. The conjoint analysis allowed for further differentiation between these elements. Practical implications: Multinationals will be able to better align their reward policies and practices with the preferences of employees who come from different cultures and who therefore possess differing cultural orientations. By doing so, multinationals will be able to improve their capability to attract, motivate and retain employees that come from distinct cultural backgrounds. Research contributions: By taking a different methodological approach using choice-based conjoint analysis, this study showed that the preference for particular reward packages can not be solely reduced to linear relationships. In contrast to previous studies, this study was able to incorporate a single sample for both the dependent and the independent variables by measuring the cultural orientations at an individual level of analysis.
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    The relationship between employee engagement, transformational leadership, perceived support and intention to quit : an exploratory study
    (2010) Henriques, Nicole; Schlechter, Anton
    Employee engagement (ENG) is a concern for most organisations as it influences productivity rates and ultimately the financial outcome of an organisation. In order to increase the levels of ENG it is important that organisations identify the antecedents of ENG. There are many antecedents of ENG, for the purposes of this study, the antecedents are: transformational leadership (TFL) and perceived support (PS). It is also important for organisations to gain an understanding of how employee engagement influences employees' intention to quit (ITQ) an organisation. This study is an exploratory attempt to see if firstly, direct relationships exist between the constructs: TFL and ENG; ENG and ITQ; PS and ENG; TFL and PS; TFL and ITQ; PS and ITQ. Secondly, to see if indirect relationships exist between: TFL and ITQ when mediated by ENG and PS and ITQ when mediated by ENG. Pearson's Product Moment correlations, Standard Multiple Regression and partial correlation were used to assess the above propositions. Baron and Kenny's (1986) 3 step process was used to test for mediation. The sample consisted of 43 employees from a financial institution. A significant positive relationship was found between: TFL and ENG; TFL and PS; PS and ENG. A direct negative relationship was found between: ENG and ITQ; TFL and ITQ; PS and ITQ. The TFL-ITQ relationship was found to be completely mediated by ENG. The PS-ITQ relationship was found to be partially mediated by ENG. PS was the only construct that made a unique contribution when predicting ENG and ITQ. Implications include the fact that PS in organisations may be crucial. It not only has a significant contribution to ENG, but to retaining employees as well. If organisations seek to maximise their resources, they need to focus on the implications that PS has on ENG. Includes bibliographical references (pages 54-61).