Browsing by Author "Noakes, Tim"

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    Aetiology of fatigue during maximal and supramaximal exercise
    (2003) Nobbs, Les; Noakes, Tim; Gibson, A St Clair; Rauch, L H
    The aim of this thesis was to investigate the extent of peripheral and central components in the development of fatigue during maximal exercise. Fatigue during maximal and supramaximal excercise has traditionally been modelled from the peripheral context of an inadequate capacity to supply metabolic substrate to the contracting muscles to meet the increased energy demand.
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    Beyond the VO2 max: the role of self-belief in elite athletic performance
    (2011) Noakes, Tim
    In the past Prof. Tim Noakes was convinced that physiology could explain performance. After 38 years of studying the human body, he now believes that the mind, and the role of self-belief, are crucial factors in human athletic feats. In January 2008, Noakes presented this lecture entitled “Beyond the VO2 max: The role of self-belief in elite athletic performance” at Croke Park Stadium, Dublin. This lecture explores how success in sports ranging from extreme cold water swimming to World Cup rugby are linked by a common thread - the role of self-belief.
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    Beyond the VO2max plateau a new approach for measuring maximal oxygen uptake
    (2013) Beltrami, Fernando Gabe; Noakes, Tim; Wagner, Peter D
    Maximal oxygen consumption (VO2max) is typically defined by the presence of the "plateau phenomenon" during incremental exercise tests, in which O2 consumption levels-off in spite of increases in workload. This is thought to reflect a limitation in the capacity of the heart to pump O2 enriched blood to the exercising limbs. Some researchers however question not only the biological validity of the "plateau concept", based on mathematical and methodological issues, but whether O2 delivery to the exercising muscles indeed sets the upper limits for VO2max. This thesis aimed to address some of these controversies.
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    A comparison of two treatment protocols in the management of exercise-associated postural hypotension (EAPH) : a randomised clinical trial
    (2007) Anley, Cameron; Schwellnus, Martin; Noakes, Tim; Collins, Malcolm
    The aim of this study was to compare which of the two commonly used treatment protocols for Exercise Associated Postural Hypotension (EAPH) (Trendelenburg with oral fluids ad libitum or intravenous fluids) result in quicker recovery and earlier discharge from the medical facility.
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    Critical analysis of techniques for normalising electromyographic data : from laboratory to clinical research
    (2008) Albertus, Yumna; Lambert, Mike; Derman, Wayne; Tucker, Ross; Noakes, Tim
    Measurements of muscle activity derived from surface EMG electrodes are variable due to both intrinsic and extrinsic factors. The intrinsic factors are endogenous in nature (features within the body) and include muscle fiber type, muscle fiber diameter and length, the amount of tissue between muscle and electrode, and depth and location of muscle with respect to the placement of electrodes (24). These biological factors vary between subjects and cannot be controlled. The extrinsic factors are experimental variables which are influenced by the researcher and can be controlled to some extent. Examples of extrinsic factors include the location, area, orientation, shape of electrodes and the distance between electrodes (interelectrode distance). In order to measure biological variation in the EMG signal, which is important in studies where surface EMG is used to gain understanding of physiological regulation, it is important to minimise the variation caused by these factors. This is in part achieved through the appropriate method of normalisation. The isometric maximal voluntary contraction (MVC) has been used as a standardmethod of normalisation for both static and dynamic exercises. However, researchers have recently improved the methods of normalisation by developing alternative techniques for the measurement of EMG during dynamic activities. By using the same type of movement for normalisation as during the trial, experimental errors can be reduced. The appropriate method of normalisation is defined as a method that is capable of showing repeatability, reliability (low intra-subject variation) and sensitivity to changes in EMG amplitude that is due to biological change and not the contribution of experimental factors. The aim of this thesis was to critically analyse alternative methods of EMG normalisation during dynamic exercise. The data should provide possible guidelines to researchers who are planning studies involving measurement of EMG activity during cycling, running and in clinical populations. Furthermore, the thesis aimed to illustrate that decisions regarding the most appropriate method of normalisation should be based on the study design, research question (absolute muscle activity or changes in muscle pattern) and the muscles being investigated.
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    The development of an evidenced-based submaximal cycle test designed to monitor and predict cycling performance : the Lamberts and Lambert submaximal cycle test (LSCT)
    (2009) Lamberts, Robert Patrick; Lambert, Michael I; Noakes, Tim
    The HIMS test, which consists of controlled exercise at increasing workloads, has been developed to monitor changes in training status and accumulative fatigue in athletes. As the workload can influence the day-to-day variation in heart rate, the exercise intensity which is associated with the highest sensitivity needs to be established with the goal of refining the interpretability of these heart rate measurements. The aim of the study was to determine the within subject day-to-day variation of submaximal and recovery heart rate in subjects who reached different exercise intensities.
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    Dysnatremia and the endocrine regulation of fluid balance during exercise
    (2007) Hew-Butler, Tamara; Noakes, Tim; Verbalis, Joseph G
    The aim of this thesis is to evaluate both abnormal and normal fluid balance during exercise. The central theme permeating all investigations is an underlying desire to understand exercise-associated hyponatremia. This thesis reflects a journey of scientific investigation primarily launched by outcomes from the 1st International Consensus Development Conference on Exercise-Associated Hyponatremia. Each individual investigation directly follows from the results of the previous investigation. Hence, the journey towards a greater understanding of exercise-associated hyponatremia went full circle and ultimately encompassed the spectrum of fluid regulation and dysregulation during exercise. This thesis begins with a brief overview of the literatur which services to intertwine previous knowledge with new knowledge gained from each successive study. A review of the literature on exercise-associated hyponatremia opens the first chapter and lays the foundation for the follwoing eight investigations. This thesis closes with a final summary of the literature which defends fluid balance physiology as the ultimate guide for developing more "physiologically appropriate" fluid replacement strategies. More specifically, the first two chapters document the abnormal regulation of serum sodium concentration during exercise.
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    Exercising advocacy: some personal ideas and experiences
    (2007) Noakes, Tim
    This talk was delivered to UCT alumni in London at South Africa House on 10 October 2007 and recorded a few weeks later in Cape Town. This video lecture can be used by self learners or as a supplement to sports science course material. This talk discusses some of Professor Noakes' experiences in advocating exercise, looking at some examples from South African rugby and cricket teams.
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    Fatigue, aging and the neuromuscular system
    (2001) St Clair Gibson, Alan; Noakes, Tim; Lambert, Mike
    The aim of this thesis was to investigate the relationship between chronic exercise activity, aging, the neuromuscular system and the symptom of fatigue in a series of studies. The hypothesis of the thesis was that in contrast to the accepted dogma that exercise is beneficial to an individual, increasing longevity and improving quality of life, excessive or chronic exercise activity may accelerate the aging process, lead to neuromuscular damage, and cause the development of pathological symptoms or levels of fatigue.
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    Influences on the nonlinear dynamics of human running stride time series
    (2013) Lindsay, Timothy Robert; Noakes, Tim; McGregor, Stephen J
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    An inventory of rugby-related spinal cord injuries in South Africa
    (2008) Hermanus, Fiona; Noakes, Tim; Draper, Catherine
    The aim of this research was to establish an inventory of rugby-related spinal cord injuries that occurred in South Africa between 1980 and July 2007, and to expand the knowledge of the risk factors. Analysis of this information may lead to improved prevention, treatment and rehabilitation of spinal cord injuries among rugby players at all levels.
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    The maintenance of Body Fluid Homestasis during exercise when drinking ad Libitum
    (2010) Tam, Nicholas; Noakes, Tim
    The prescription of an optimal fluid intake during exercise has been a controversial subject in sports science over the past decade. Only recently has it evolved from 'blanket' prescriptions to more individualised recommendations. Currently the American College of Sports Medicine (ACSM) advise that sufficient fluid should be drunk in order to ensure that body mass (BM) loss does not exceed >2% of starting BM in order to avoid exercise-associated medical complications. Historically BM changes have been used as a surrogate for fluid loss during exercise. It would be helpful to accurately determine fluid shifts in the body in order to provide physiologically appropriate fluid intake advice. The measurement of total body water (TBW) via deuterium oxide has been found to be the most accurate measure to detect changes in body fluid content. Thus the aim of this thesis was to understand body fluid homeostasis during exercise when drinking according to the dictates of thirst (ad libitum). This thesis begins with a review of the literature examining the basis for fluid intake prescription with the use of BM, the concepts of 'voluntary and involuntary dehydration' and the major routes by which the body is potentially able to gain and lose fluid during exercise. We initially found that changes in TBW are more variable than BM at rest, although technical machine error accounted for a majority of the total error in the TBW measurement. Interestingly BM remains very stable at rest compared to the dynamic nature of changes in TBW both daily and weekly. We also found that measurements of both BM and TBW produce reproducible results at rest. Our first finding was that with the adoption of an ad libitum fluid intake during exercise athletes participating in the study were able to finish races of varying distances without any medical complication along with a >2% BM loss. Which leads onto our second and more important finding that we have also demonstrated that despite a >2% BM loss, all of our subjects finished their respective races whilst maintaining plasma sodium concentration ([Na+]) and plasma osmolality (POsm) within the normal range when drinking ad libitum. This finding demonstrates the reality of drinking in athletes competing in various types of foot races and that it is unnecessary to drink to maintain BM in order to successfully complete races of any distance Thirdly and most pertinent finding was that associated with this >2% BM loss we measured TBW changes during these races and found that changes in BM do not track changes in TBW during real-life competition in athletes when drinking ad libitum. This finding illustrates that to some extent, sweat losses during exercise are offset by internal water sources associated with metabolic water formation and water associated with glycogen storage ensuring the maintenance of body fluid homeostasis. It was also noted that athletes performing the best often experience the greatest BM loss during the 21.1km and we found a similar trend in the 56km race. We have suggested that this can be explained by both behavioural and physiological reasons. Lastly all athletes successfully completed their respective races without encountering any exercise-associated medical complications with the adoption of an ad libitum fluid intake approach. The outcomes from this thesis support the prescription of more physiologically appropriate advice for fluid intake prescription during exercise. We hope that these studies will provide adequate corroboration that during exercise together with an ad libitum approach, athletes are able to maintain adequate hydration (maintenance of POsm and plasma [Na+]) regardless of significant decreases in BM, which is often associated with superior performance in some athletes.
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    Metabolic and lifestyle profiling of overweight female runners compared to lean counterparts: exploring the implications and causes of their elevated body weight
    (2016) Leith, David; Smith, James; Kohn, Tertius; Noakes, Tim
    There appears to be an emerging phenotype of recreational runners who are overweight despite being regularly active. This conflicts with the common perception that exercise protects against weight-gain, and it may be caused by underlying insulin-resistance. Alternatively, recent research has brought attention to metabolically healthy obese (MHO) individuals, who have increased adiposity but no commonly associated metabolic abnormalities, such as insulin-resistance, hypertension, dyslipidaemia and systemic inflammation. This study aimed to determine whether overweight (OW, BMI ≥ 25 kg.m⁻²) female runners were at risk of developing metabolic pathology and compare the findings to lean (LN, BMI < 23 kg.m⁻²) counterparts. A secondary aim was to explore potential inherent or lifestyle factors that may have predisposed or contributed to weight-gain in OW runners. METHODS. Twenty (10 OW, 10 LN) female recreational runners (years of running experience 7.1 ± 4.4 OW; 8.0 ± 3.7 LN) matched for mean age (38.7 ± 4.6 OW; 37.7 ± 4.3 LN), current mileage in km.week⁻¹ (42.0 ± 10.9 OW; 44.5 ± 12.1 LN) and running calibre expressed as energy expenditure (kcal.min⁻¹) in their most recent half-marathon (9.0 ± 1.1 OW; 9.2 ± 1.1 LN) were recruited for this study. Body fat percentage (BF%) was determined using DXA. Participants completed questionnaires about health history, lifestyle and eating habits and validated questionnaires concerning recent sleep and stress. Their diet was recorded using 3-day diet records and analysed using the South African Food Data System (Medical Research Council of South Africa). Habitual sleep and physical activity were quantified using 7-day actigraphy (Actiwatch 2) and accelerometry (Actigraph GTX3+) respectively. Blood pressure and resting metabolic rate were measured after an overnight fast. Blood samples were analysed for cardio-metabolic parameters and an Oral Glucose Tolerance Test was performed for insulin-sensitivity. RESULTS. OW exhibited a greater body weight (74.4 ± 6.4 kg OW; 59.4 ± 7.8 kg LN, p < 0.001) but similar fat-free-mass (49.4 ± 5.6 kg OW; 45.4 ± 5.9 kg LN) to the LN group. OW had a higher BF% (32.1 ± 3.9 OW; 21.8 ± 3.9 LN, p < 0.0001), and systolic (118 ± 10 mmHg OW; 107 ± 5 mmHg LN, p < 0.05), but not diastolic (72 ± 6 mmHg OW; 68 ± 4 mmHg LN) blood pressure. There was no difference between groups in serum uric acid, alanine aminotransferase, % HbA1c, total cholesterol, HDL-cholesterol, triglycerides or free-fatty-acids. OW had higher levels of C-reactive protein (1.30 ± 0.97 mg.L⁻¹ OW; 0.59 ± 0.35 mg.L⁻¹ LN, p < 0.05), total cholesterol / HDL-cholesterol (2.70 ± 0.40 OW; 2.30 ± 0.42 LN, p < 0.05) and LDL-cholesterol (2.99 ± 0.65 mM OW; 2.43 ± 0.72 mM LN, p < 0.05), but these were within normal ranges. IDL-cholesterol constituted a significantly greater proportion of total cholesterol in OW compared to LN, but HDL- and LDL- cholesterol sub-fraction distributions were similar. Indices of hepatic (HOMA-IR, 1.06 ± 0.51 OW; 0.86 ± 0.24 LN), and whole-body (Matsuda, 7.84 ± 2.46 OW; 9.16 ± 2.28 LN) insulin-sensitivity were variable and similar between groups. Total area-under-the-curve of the OGTT insulin response tended to be higher in OW (p = 0.08). Two OW runners had insulin-resistance (Matsuda < 5); but no participants had the metabolic syndrome. RMR (kcal.kg FFM⁻¹.day⁻¹) was lower in OW (29.5 ± 2.1 OW; 31.6 ± 2.3 LN, p < 0.05), but there were no significant differences in lifestyle factors (diet, physical activity, sleep and stress). Total energy intake in kcal.day⁻¹ (1928 ± 354 OW; 2166 ± 489 LN) and % macronutrient composition as Protein/Fat/Carbohydrate/Alcohol (20/44/33/3 OW; 16/43/36/5 LN) were both similar between groups. OW and LN also exhibited similar activity in steps.day⁻¹ (10 742 ± 3552 OW; 12 073 ± 3273 LN) and percentage accelerometer wear-time spent in Sedentary/Light/Moderate-Vigorous physical activity (75/14/11 OW; 72/15/13 LN). Both groups attained circa 7 hours.night⁻¹ of sleep, with good sleep onset latency (7.3 ± 5.8 minutes OW; 5.8 ± 3.5 minutes LN) and sleep efficiency (91.6 ± 4.4% OW; 90.7 ± 2.8% LN), and they reported reduced to average levels of recent stress. DISCUSSION. OW runners presented with greater mean adiposity than LN counterparts, but the two groups were not as distinct as anticipated. OW runners did present with greater metabolic risk according to some traditional risk factors, including inflammation, systolic blood pressure, LDL-C and total cholesterol. However, the first three were within normal ranges and the clinical relevance of the latter is questionable. It was, therefore, concluded that on average the OW group was not at metabolic risk. Only two OW runners and no LN runners were insulin-resistant according to indices derived from the OGTT. These findings may primarily reflect the insulin-sensitising effects of regular exercise and the consequent fitness of the OW runners. Appetite-dysregulation is speculated to have played an integral role in their prior weight-gain. We did not identify any lifestyle discrepancies that could have explained this weight-gain. The cross-sectional nature of this study made it difficult to assess past behaviour during weight-gain, and inter-individual variation was considerable. In combination with the small sample size, these factors limited the generalisability of the results. Future exploration of the 'overweight-runner' phenotype is warranted to clarify the mechanisms of weight-gain in habitual runners and consequent lifestyle changes that may promote meaningful weight-loss.
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    Portable inshoe gait analysis device
    (1987) Levin, Mark Raymond; Noakes, Tim
    Gait analysers are devices or systems that quantify the planter /' pressures as they occur under the foot. The data obtained, be it. in visual or digital format, assists the medical practitioner in the diagnosis of an abnormality of gait. This thesis describes the development of a low-cost, portable, inshoe gait analysis device which overcomes all the limitations experienced by other systems currently in use. The non-availability of .robust, yet small pressure transducers, required the design and manufacture of these components. Capable of being embedded within an insole environment, it allows for the unobtrusive monitoring of localised planter pressures associated with all modes of gait. The transducer output, being analogy and continuous in nature, allows for the production of a real-time pressure display an important requirement for the therapeutic assessment and treatment of patients. The flexibility and accuracy of this system surpasses that of other systems. Its configuration provides for operation in remote environments, allowing for gait measurements under specific ambulation conditions. Use of a new transducer monitoring technique, in addition to a new video mixing technique, has enabled this device to compete with those systems making use of expensive processing and display equipment. Two prototype gait analysis systems have been built and extensively tested under clinical conditions. The results obtained provide unique, hitherto unavailable data, which can now be used for a more precise classification of gait disorders. It is already clear that the data will provide the basis for more accurate diagnosis and therefore more appropriate treatment of a variety of gait.
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    The regulation of exercise performance by a complex anticipatory system
    (2006) Tucker, Ross; Noakes, Tim
    The present thesis examined the hypothesis that self-paced exercise performance and pacing strategies are regulated by a complex intelligent system in advance of a failure to maintain homeostasis in one or more physiological systems. In the first study, ten trained cyclists performed 20 km cycling time-trials in hot (35°C) and cool (15°C) conditions. The power output was reduced in the heat despite core temperatures that were sub-maximal and not different from those measured in the cool condition. Significantly, the reduction in power output was associated with a lower IEMG activity in the active muscle, suggesting that the brain recruited less muscle even at sub-maximal body temperatures. Thus, self-paced exercise in the heat was regulated in advance of thermoregulatory failure. This model was then applied to conditions where the oxygen content of the air was elevated (yperoxia). Eleven subjects performed 20km time-trails, and it was found that a higher power output was maintained throughput hyperoxic (F₁O₂0.21), and that the IEMG activity was elevated in hyperoxia. The subjective rating of perceived exertion (RPE), measured using the Borg scale, was similar in both this and the first study, despite differences in power output. It was suggested that the RPE may play a mediatory role.
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    The role of emotional intelligence in sports performance
    (2011) Crombie, David T; Noakes, Tim
    In the realm of sports performance it is self-evident that not all athletes or teams are made equal, and thus it is understandable that researchers concerned with the quest for high performance in sport would wish to identify empirically what differentiates high from low performance. While research into the relationship between emotions and sport performance is a well established field of study, the emergence of the construct emotional intelligence has opened up a new research focus and addition to the literature. However, despite the increasingly widespread view that emotional intelligence may be linked to sports performance, currently few empirical research studies have been undertaken, and thus there is a paucity of substantive scientific evidence to support this contention. This reality was the point of departure for this thesis, with the aim of investigating the role of emotional intelligence (EI) in team sports performance. Given the centrality of the construct EI in this research line of enquiry, it was necessary at the outset to address both ontological and epistemological issues.
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    Series of lectures to the UCT rugby team
    (2011) Noakes, Tim
    In the first lecture Prof Noakes speaks of the role of self belief in athletic performance ""what you really believe will happen is exactly what will happen"". The greatest hurdle is the mental barrier"". This trilogy of lectures was originally presented to the University of Cape Town's Rugby Team in 2008. The lectures centre around Prof Noakes' teachings of self belief and team unity as role players in athletic performance.
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    Tim Noakes 'Order of Mapungubwe' award reception
    (2011) Noakes, Tim
    The Order of Mapungubwe is one of the National Orders bestowed each year on deserving South Africans. A number of UCT academics have been honoured with this award. This series of talks was occasioned by awards to Professor Timothy Noakes and Wieland Gevers in November 2008. This video lecture can be used by self learners or as a supplement to sports science course material.
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    Time to move beyond a brainless physiology
    (2011) Noakes, Tim
    According to Noakes, not enough people are looking at the bigger picture that the body does not function in discrete and unconnected apartments.He argues that too much of exercise physiology concentrates on the body’s reflexive automatic response to stimuli of shutting down close to the point of collapse. Exercise is a complex behavior that is regulated by a complex system. In this talk, Prof Noakes seeks to include the brain as a factor in exercise physiology. He starts with the classical teachings in exercise physiology and continues by looking at various models such as the A.V. Hill model and the peripheral model.
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    Towards an improved understanding of the biomechanical implications and risk of injury of barefoot running
    (2014) Tam, Nicholas; Tucker, Ross; Astephen Wilson, Janie L; Noakes, Tim
    Barefoot running is a subject of significant interest, both in scientific publications and in the lay media as a result of its alleged benefits for runners. These benefits include the potential to reduce injury risk, more economical running and broadly speaking, a better understanding of running biomechanics. Although there are numerous scientific publications describing differences between barefoot and shod running, there is a dearth in understanding whether all runners are able to adapt to the proposed benefits and how this may affect long-term injury risk. Thus, we sought to investigate the biomechanical, neuromuscular and metabolic changes associated with habitually shod runners during the transition to pure barefoot running over an 8- week progressive training programme. This thesis begins with a critical review of the literature, which evaluates the theories and evidence for barefoot running, as well as describing the necessary future research to confirm or refute the barefoot running hypotheses. Our first study aimed to describe acute changes occurring in habitually shod runners when first exposed to barefoot running. We were particularly interested in the variability in response, and whether we could identify factors that predicted potentially favourable changes in kinematic and kinetic outcomes. Fifty-one runners were recruited and assessed using a 3-D motion capture system and integrated force platforms using conventional methods. We found that loading rate was significantly greater in the barefoot condition, but that high individual variability existed, particularly in the barefoot trials. We found that an increase in ankle dorsiflexion is associated with an increase in initial loading rate when in the barefoot condition, supporting previous findings in this regard. We then performed a supervised, pure barefoot running training programme, over 8 weeks, to determine whether the biomechanics of barefoot running would adapt gradually to habituation. Twenty-three runners were recruited for participation, and performed comprehensive biomechanical and neuromuscular assessments before and after the 8-week programme. The first finding was runners do not adapt similarly to barefoot training, and that biomechanics do not change significantly over the 8-week period. High variability in ankle kinematics and loading rate were found, with three sub-groups identified, namely positive responders (reduced loading rate after training), non-responders (no change in loading rate) and negative responders (increase in loading rate after training). We found significant associations between initial loading rate the changes in ankle flexion angle at initial ground contact, presumably as a result of its influence on footstrike. This finding suggests that conscious instruction might be necessary in order to achieve reductions in collision forces during barefoot running. With respect to neuromuscular variables, a persistently higher gastrocnemii muscle preactivation was found in the barefoot condition before and after the training intervention. Increased gastrocnemius pre-activation was associated with lower initial loading rate. An increase in gluteus medius and peroeus longus and a decrease in tibialis anterior pre-activation were also associated with a reduction in initial loading rate after barefoot training. This finding suggests a refined neuromuscular activation strategy prior to ground contact in the barefoot condition to stabilize the hip and centre of mass. Lastly, oxygen cost of transport was found to improve as a result of the barefoot training programme in the male runners and this improvement was found to be associated with a decrease in ground contact time and increase in stride frequency, but no a change in ankle flexion angle at initial ground contact. The outcomes from this thesis elucidate the highly variable response of individuals to barefoot running. This advises individuals choosing to transition to barefoot running to do so with caution. With this in mind, we suggest certain characteristics that may be used as screening mechanisms to indicate individual suitability to barefoot running based on the “collision force theory”. Further, benefits associated with barefoot running other than varied responses in initial loading rate such as improvements in oxygen cost of running are pre-dominantly hypothesised to be a result of musculo-tendinous adaptations, neuromuscular strength and motor control.