Browsing by Author "Ferguson, Gillian D"

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    Open Access
    A systematic review investigating measurement properties of physiological tests in rugby
    (BioMed Central, 2017-12-28) Chiwaridzo, Matthew; Oorschot, Sander; Dambi, Jermaine M; Ferguson, Gillian D; Bonney, Emmanuel; Mudawarima, Tapfuma; Tadyanemhandu, Cathrine; Smits-Engelsman, Bouwien C M
    Background: This systematic review was conducted with the first objective aimed at providing an overview of the physiological characteristics commonly evaluated in rugby and the corresponding tests used to measure each construct. Secondly, the measurement properties of all identified tests per physiological construct were evaluated with the ultimate purpose of identifying tests with strongest level of evidence per construct. Methods: The review was conducted in two stages. In all stages, electronic databases of EBSCOhost, Medline and Scopus were searched for full-text articles. Stage 1 included studies examining physiological characteristics in rugby. Stage 2 included studies evaluating measurement properties of all tests identified in Stage 1 either in rugby or related sports such as Australian Rules football and Soccer. Two independent reviewers screened relevant articles from titles and abstracts for both stages. Results: Seventy studies met the inclusion criteria for Stage 1. The studies described 63 tests assessing speed (8), agility/change of direction speed (7), upper-body muscular endurance (8), upper-body muscular power (6), upperbody muscular strength (5), anaerobic endurance (4), maximal aerobic power (4), lower-body muscular power (3), prolonged high-intensity intermittent running ability/endurance (5), lower-body muscular strength (5), repeated high-intensity exercise performance (3), repeated-sprint ability (2), repeated-effort ability (1), maximal aerobic speed (1) and abdominal endurance (1). Stage 2 identified 20 studies describing measurement properties of 21 different tests. Only moderate evidence was found for the reliability of the 30–15 Intermittent Fitness. There was limited evidence found for the reliability and/or validity of 5 m, 10 m, 20 m speed tests, 505 test, modified 505 test, L run test, Sergeant Jump test and bench press repetitions-to-fatigue tests. There was no information from high-quality studies on the measurement properties of all the other tests identified in stage 1. Conclusion: A number of physiological characteristics are evaluated in rugby. Each physiological construct has multiple tests for measurement. However, there is paucity of information on measurement properties from high-quality studies for the tests. This raises questions about the usefulness and applicability of these tests in rugby and creates a need for high-quality future studies evaluating measurement properties of these physiological tests. Trial registrations: PROSPERO CRD 42015029747.
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    Anthropometric, physiological characteristics and rugby-specific game skills of schoolboy players of different age categories and playing standards
    (2020-02-10) Chiwaridzo, Matthew; Ferguson, Gillian D; Smits-Engelsman, Bouwien C M
    Abstract Background Rugby is increasingly gaining popularity among school-aged male junior players in countries hardly known for dominating international rugby, such as Zimbabwe. Given rugby combativeness, participating adolescents should possess qualities or skills commensurate with the physical demands of the sport for effective participation. This study investigated the independent and interactive effects of age category and playing standard on anthropometric, physiological characteristics and rugby-specific game skills among Zimbabwean athletes. Methods Two hundred and eight elite, sub-elite and non-rugby players competing at Under 16 and Under 19 age categories were assessed using the School Clinical Rugby Measure (SCRuM) test battery. Participants underwent height, sitting height, mass, skinfolds, speed, agility, upper-and-lower muscular strength and power, prolonged high-intensity intermittent running ability, tackling, passing and catching assessments in a cross-sectional experimental design. Results Age categories had significant main effect on all SCRuM test items except sum of seven skinfolds (p = 0.45, η2p = 0.003). Playing standard had significant main effects for all variables except height (p = 0.40, η2p = 0.01) and sum of seven skinfolds (p = 0.11, η2p = 0.02). Specifically, upper-and-lower muscular strength and power, prolonged high-intensity intermittent running ability, tackling, passing and catching improved with increasing playing standards. However, two-way analysis of variance only demonstrated significant interactions between the effects of age category and playing standards for vertical jump height (VJ) test, 2-kg medicine ball chest throw (2-kg MBCT) test, Yo-Yo intermittent recovery test level 1 (Yo-Yo IRT L1), and tackling and catching tests. Yo-Yo IRT L1, VJ, tackling and catching tests demonstrated greater discriminative ability among Under 16 s, whereas the 2-kg MBCT test showed better ability in Under 19 s. Conclusion All SCRuM variables except skinfolds improved with age, highlighting relative sensitivity in differentiating older from younger athletes. However, the discriminative ability by playing standards for VJ, 2-kg MBCT, Yo-Yo IRT L1, tackling and catching ability tests was age-dependent. These findings informs on general attribute development in junior rugby players with age and on specific players attributes in need of monitoring for attainment of elite status at U16 or U19 level.
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    The association between prematurity, motor fuction and health related quality of life among learners in the foundation primary phase
    (2017) Oosthuizen, Henriëtte; Ferguson, Gillian D; Jelsma, Jennifer
    Introduction and Aims: Children born prematurely (≤ 36 weeks gestation) are at risk of poor developmental outcomes and are more likely than their full-term (FT) peers to have behavioural, physical and/or cognitive limitations. In order to deliver effective interventions, therapists need to have a sound understanding of the problems experienced by children who were born prematurely. Presently, very little is known about the functional problems of young school aged children, living in the Free State province of South Africa, who were born prematurely. Methodology: This study was conducted in 15 randomly selected schools located within in a 100 km radius of Bloemfontein. Two groups of children in grades R, 1 and 2 (age range: 5-8 years) were recruited, the first group (PREM group) consisted of children having a history of premature birth (≤ 36 weeks). The second group consisted of full term children (FT group) who were matched for age and gender to the first group. The PREM group was categorised into three subgroups according to prematurity status: late premature (34-36 weeks, LP), moderate (MP) to very premature (29-33 weeks, VP) and extremely premature (≤ 28 weeks, EP). A self-designed questionnaire was used to record demographic and medical information obtained from parents. The questions were related to antenatal factors, birth and medical history of the child. The Movement Assessment Battery for Children second edition (MABC-2) and MABC-2 Checklist were used to evaluate functional motor problems in children. The European Quality of Life Dimension Scale- Youth version (EQ-5D-Y) was used to determine the Health Related Quality of Life of the children and the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ) was used to describe the behavioural and emotional status of each child according to their parents and teachers. Ethical approval was obtained from the University of Cape Town Research Ethics Committee (HREC REF: 694/2014) and permission to conduct the study within schools was granted by the Free State Education Department. Informed consent and assent was obtained. Parents were interviewed by a research assistant using the self-designed questionnaire. A different researcher then tested all children using the MABC-2 and assisted each child to complete the EQ-5D-Y. The parents and teachers each completed the SDQ and teachers completed the MABC-2 checklist. Statistical analysis was conducted using SAS® Version 9.4 and STATISTICA 10. The data were summarized using descriptive statistics (i.e. number of available data (n), mean, and standard deviation, minimum, median and maximum). The Mann Whitney U test was used to compare groups (PREM vs FT groups) and the Chi-square test was used to determine any association between groups and 5 descriptive variables. Comparisons between prematurity subgroups were conducted using the Kruskal- Wallis ANOVA. Results: 122 children participated in this study: 61 FT children and 61 PREM children. The PREM group consisted of 23 children who were classified as late premature, 27 who were moderate to very premature and 11 children who were extremely premature There were no differences between groups in terms of age (U = 1760, z = -0.51, p = 0.610), gender (Chi = 0.03, df = 2, p = 0.86), grade level (Chi = 0.386, df = 3, p = 0.98) and socioeconomic status [as defined by mothers level of education (Chi = 3.79, df = 2, p = 0.15) and school quintile (Chi = 5.22, df =2, p = 0.07)]. Differences were found in terms of maternal age at delivery (PREM = 31.9 years [SD=5.2] vs. FT = 29.02 years [SD = 3.5] df = 120, t = -3.61, p < 0.001). As expected, the PREM group had a significantly lower birthweight compared to the FT group (PREM = 2201g [SD = 748] vs. FT = 3132g [SD = 406], df = 120, t = 8.54, p < 0.001). 96.7% of those in the PREM group were born via C/section (p < 0.0001). Apart from one case of respiratory distress, the FT group reported no neonatal complications. As expected, more candidates in the PREM group were more frequently hospitalised (Chi = 34.605, df = 2), and cases of CP were reported. The APGAR scores were significantly different between FT and PREM groups at 1min (p<0.0001) and 5min (p<0.0001) Regarding motor performance, there was a significant difference in MABC-2 Total Standard Scores (MABC TSS) (U = 1425.0, z = 2.23, p = 0.026) and the MABC-Checklist Total Motor Scores (U = 1016.5, z = -4.32, p < 0.0001) with FT group performing better and reporting less functional motor problems than the PREM group. Regarding HRQoL, we found that groups were also significantly different in terms of the Mobility domain of the EQ-5D-Y with the Prem group reporting more problems than the FT group (Chi = 6.31, df =1, p = 0.012). No differences were found between groups with regard to the Looking After Myself (Chi = 2.03, df =1, p = 0.153), Usual Activities (Chi = 0.00, df = 1, p = 1.0), Worried/Sad/Unhappy (Chi = 1.22, df =1, p = 0.541), and Pain/Discomfort (Chi = 3.59, df = 1, p = 0.165) domains. In terms of emotional-behavioural status, we found no differences between the two groups in terms of Parent Total Difficulties scores (U = 1791.50, z = -0.351, p = 0.725) as well as Teachers Total Difficulties Scores (U = 1518.0, z = -1.751, p = 0.08). However, the FT group scored lower than the PREM group on the emotional domain (U = 1404.0, z = -2.33, p = 0.02) indicating less problems and higher on the prosocial domain (U = 1335.0, z = 2.68, p = 0.007) indicating more positive factors in this group. On examination of the PREM sub groups, we found no differences in Parent Total Difficulties Score between groups (p = 0.377). When we compared parent versus teacher SDQ scores, 45 (73.8 %) cases where the parent and teacher were in agreement with the "normal" assigned score. In addition, there were 2 (3.3 %) cases were the parent and teacher respectively assigned a score of "abnormal" and "borderline". Regarding the Impact scores, parents/caregivers reported that the difficulties (emotional, conduct, hyperactivity, peer and prosocial problems) did not have an impact on a child's friendship (p = 0.2889), classroom learning (p = 0.2325), leisure activities (p = 0.3585) or their home life (p = 0.1248). In contrast, teachers' responses indicated that the difficulties had an influence on classroom learning (p = 0.0030) but not friendships (p = 0.2374). Discussion: The late premature group made up a bigger proportion of the premature group. This correlates with the PPIP report, where the same trend was noted for the South African premature population (Pattinson, Saving Babies [PPIP], 2012-2013; Kalimba & Ballot, 2013). Findings from this study correlated with literature on PREM children being more at risk of decreased motor function when compared to FT peers (Hack et al., 2002; Chyi et al., 2008; Stephans & Vohr, 2009; Van Baar et al., 2009; Hornby & Woodward, 2009; Van Baar et al, 2013). Fine motor skills is essential in a child's daily activities and very important to function at school. This study indicated a deficiency within fine motor and balance domains within the PREM group. Maternal age surfaced as predictor of motor performance as younger mothers (< 19 years) have an increased risk of low birth weight and premature infants (very and extremely premature) (Schempf, Branum, Lukacs & Schoendorf, 2007; Gibbs, Wendt, Peters & Hogue, 2012; Kalimba & Ballot, 2013; Fall, Sachdev, Osmond, Restrepo-Mendez, Victora, Martorell, Stein, Sinha, et al., 2015; Benli, Benli, Usta, Atakul, Koroglu, 2015). Literature on older mothers (≥ age 35) also showed an increased risk towards premature birth (moderate and very premature) with more medical conditions (such as hypertension and diabetes)-this was not the case in this research (Schempf et al., 2007; Gibbs et al., 2012; Kalimba & Ballot, 2013; Fall et al., 2015; Benli et al., 2015), however it is reported that PREM infants from older mothers show somewhat better outcomes of infants later in life (Schempf et al., 2007; Gibbs et al., 2012; Kalimba & Ballot, 2013; Fall et al., 2015; Benli et al., 2015). Other findings from this research indicated that, from the teachers' perspectives, PREM children showed a greater tendency towards emotional and prosocial behaviour impairments, than the FT population. This align with literature where premature infants are mentioned to be more susceptible to behaviour performance problems at school-age (Kerstjens et al., 2012; Bos et al., 2013; Moreira et al., 7 2014). In this research, the extremely premature group had more behavioural problems which had an impact on theses children's leisure activities, peer, and classroom learning. Conclusion: Our findings suggest that PREM children have more motor problems than FT children and that the very preterm group showed the highest risk for motor problems. Maternal age also indicated to be an influencing factor where mothers younger than 19, as well as mother over 35, both indicated a risk for premature birth, resulting in low birth weight. Other risk factors influencing function in the PREM, apart from low birth weight, indicated by the results were factors like respiratory distress, apnoea, haemorrhaging and the exposure to post-natal steroids. According to teacher's perceptions, the children in the PREM group, tended to show more behavioural and emotional problems that those of the FT sample.
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    Development and validation of the School Clinical Rugby Measure (SCRuM) test battery: understanding the qualities or skills defining good male adolescent rugby union players
    (2020) Chiwaridzo, Matthew; Ferguson, Gillian D; Smits-Engelsman, Bouwien CM
    Background: Globally, the number of schoolboy adolescents playing highly competitive rugby is increasing even in countries such as Zimbabwe hardly known for dominating international rugby events. Given the increased participation rates, burgeoning talent identification and recruitment programs and the reportedly high injury risk associated with competitive youth rugby in Zimbabwe and globally, the minimal qualities or skills defining good male adolescent rugby players need further clarification. This study assembled a testing battery and compared the anthropometric variables, physiological characteristics and rugby-specific game skills of Zimbabwean schoolboys to identify qualities and/or skills discriminating elite from sub-elite male adolescent rugby players and non-rugby players within and between Under 16 (U16) and U19 age categories. Methods: This study was structured in three phases. Phase I developed the School Clinical Rugby Measure (SCRuM) test battery based on amalgamated information derived from narrative literature review, qualitative study and two systematic reviews. Using mixed methods sequential explanatory study designs, Phase II refined the test battery through the evaluation of face and logical validity using key informants (n=5) and rugby experts (n=20), respectively. Subsequently, rugby coaches (n=30) assessed the practical feasibility of implementing each SCRuM test item in the local context considering test equipment, procedural and acceptability issues. Phase III evaluated the test-retest reliability of each SCRuM test item among a sample of elite U16s (n=41) and U19s (n=41). The final study in Phase III compared cross-sectional test performances of 208 athletes from different playing standards and age category to identify SCRuM test items discriminating (i) older (U19) players from younger (U16) players regardless of playing standards, and (ii) elite from both sub-elite and nonrugby players regardless of age. Results: Phase I produced the first version of the SCRuM test battery with 23 variables. Phase II reduced the constituent components to 15 variables. The test-retest reliability study showed high intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC>0.70) for all SCRuM test items except for the 5-m, 10-m speed tests and passing-for-accuracy test. Age category had a significant main effect on all SCRuM test items except for sum of seven skinfolds (p=0.45, η2 p=0.003). Playing standard had a significant main effect ii on all variables except for height (p=0.40, η2 p=0.01) and sum of seven skinfolds (p=0.11, η2 p =0.02). Upper-and-lower body muscular strength and power, prolonged high-intensity intermittent running ability, repeated high-intensity exercise performance ability, tackling, passing and catching significantly improved with increasing playing standards. However, the Yo-Yo intermittent recovery level 1 test, vertical jump test, tackling proficiency test and running-and-catching ability skills test demonstrated greater discriminative ability across playing standards among U16s. The 40-m speed test, 2-kg medicine ball chest throw test, repeated high-intensity exercise test, one-repetition maximum bench press and back squat tests, and passing ability skills test showed better discriminative validity for differentiating U19s by playing standards. Conclusion: Irrespective of playing standard and consistent with previous studies, all SCRuM test items significantly increased with age except for skinfolds measures. These results highlight the sensitivity of component SCRuM test items in discriminating younger (U16s) from older (U19s) athletes. U16 coaches should consider these differences when designing training interventions to assist with the development of prospective U19 players. However, prolonged high-intensity intermittent running ability, lower-body muscular power, tackling proficiency and running-andcatching ability demonstrated greater discriminative ability among U16s only, indicating a possible link to higher playing standards for that age category. Upper-body muscular power, upper-and-lowerbody muscular strength, 40-m sprinting ability, repeated high-intensity exercise performance ability, and passing ability significantly improved with playing standards among U19s, highlighting the physiological characteristics and game skills capable of differentiating elite male adolescent rugby players from both sub-elite or non-rugby players at that age category. Collectively, these findings provide insight to the high school rugby coaches into the qualities and skills contextually relevant for training for the attainment of higher playing standards in schoolboy rugby at distinct age categories.
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    Open Access
    Motor learning: an analysis of 100 trials of a ski slalom game in children with and without developmental coordination disorder
    (Public Library of Science, 2015) Smits-Engelsman, Bouwien C M; Jelsma, Lemke Dorothee; Ferguson, Gillian D; Geuze, Reint H
    Objective Although Developmental Coordination Disorder (DCD) is often characterized as a skill acquisition deficit disorder, few studies have addressed the process of motor learning. This study examined learning of a novel motor task; the Wii Fit ski slalom game. The main objectives were to determine: 1) whether learning occurs over 100 trial runs of the game, 2) if the learning curve is different between children with and without DCD, 3) if learning is different in an easier or harder version of the task, 4) if learning transfers to other balance tasks. Method 17 children with DCD (6-10 years) and a matched control group of 17 typically developing (TD) children engaged in 20 minutes of gaming, twice a week for five weeks. Each training session comprised of alternating trial runs, with five runs at an easy level and five runs at a difficult level. Wii scores, which combine speed and accuracy per run, were recorded. Standardized balance tasks were used to measure transfer. RESULTS: Significant differences in initial performance were found between groups on the Wii score and balance tasks. Both groups improved their Wii score over the five weeks. Improvement in the easy and in the hard task did not differ between groups. Retention in the time between training sessions was not different between TD and DCD groups either. The DCD group improved significantly on all balance tasks. CONCLUSIONS: The findings in this study give a fairly coherent picture of the learning process over a medium time scale (5 weeks) in children novice to active computer games; they learn, retain and there is evidence of transfer to other balance tasks. The rate of motor learning is similar for those with and without DCD. Our results raise a number of questions about motor learning that need to be addressed in future research.
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    Proprioception, balance and lower limb strength in Nigerian children (7-10 years) with Generalized Joint Hypermobility and Developmental Coordination Disorder
    (2016) Ituen, Oluwakemi Adebukola; Ferguson, Gillian D; Smits-Engelsman, Bouwien C M
    Background and justification: African children are reported as having a higher prevalence of generalised joint hypermobility (GJH) than their Caucasian counterparts. It is believed that abnormal joint biomechanics as a result of the joint laxity contribute to the damage of joints. The ability to perceive movement or position sense at joints (proprioception) is necessary for good postural control and motor performance. Sensory receptors carry information from the joints to the central nervous system for interpretation and appropriate motor response. Damage to these receptors or joint pain may have a negative effect on proprioception and motor control. A number of children with GJH also present with poor motor coordination and some may even have Developmental Coordination Disorder (DCD). Children with DCD and GJH also have similar functional difficulties. Both groups of children display difficulty in motor activities at school and home and are referred to as clumsy. There is evidence that poor motor coordination seen in children with DCD may be as a result of their inability to adequately control their flexible joints during movement. The role proprioception, balance and muscle strength plays in the relationship between GJH and DCD is still not clear. Aims and objectives: The main aim of this study was to determine whether proprioception, standing balance and strength in the lower limbs was different between children with GJH and children with normal joint mobility (NM). The specific objectives were to firstly identify the prevalence of GJH in a sample of Nigerian children and determine whether age and gender are related with the prevalence of GJH. Secondly, to determine whether having DCD or not was associated with differences in performance on these measures in children with and without GJH.
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    The use of the EQ-5D-Y health related quality of life outcome measure in children in the Western Cape, South Africa: psychometric properties, feasibility and usefulness - a longitudinal, analytical study
    (BioMed Central, 2017-01-19) Scott, Des; Ferguson, Gillian D; Jelsma, Jennifer
    Background: The EQ-5D-Y, an outcome measure of Health Related Quality of Life (HRQoL) in children, was developed by an international task team in 2010. The multinational feasibility, reliability and validity study which followed was undertaken with mainly healthy children. The aim of this study was to investigate the psychometric properties of the EQ-5D-Y when used to assess the HRQoL of children with different health states. Method: A sample of 224 children between eight and twelve years were grouped according to their health state. The groups included 52 acutely ill children, 67 children with either a chronic health condition or disability and 105 mostly healthy, mainstream school children as a comparator. They were assessed at baseline, at three months and at six months. An analysis of the psychometric properties was performed to assess the reliability, validity and responsiveness of the EQ-5D-Y in the different groups of children. Cohen’s kappa, the intraclass correlation coefficient, Pearson Chi-square, Kruskal-Wallis ANOVA and effect size of Wilcoxon Signed-rank test were used to determine the reliability, validity and responsiveness of the instrument. Results: The EQ-5D-Y dimensions were found to be reliable on test-retest (kappa varying from 0.365 to 0.653), except for the Usual Activities dimension (kappa 0.199). The Visual Analogue Scale (VAS) was also reliable (ICC = 0.77). Post-hoc analysis indicated that dimensions were able to discriminate between acutely ill and healthy children (all differences p < 0.001). The acutely ill children had the lowest ranked VAS (median 50, range 0–100), indicating worst HRQoL and was the only group significantly different from the other three groups (p < 0.001 in all cases). Convergent validity between all similar EQ-5D-Y and PedsQL, WeeFIM and Faces Pain Scale dimensions was only evident in the acutely ill children. As expected the largest treatment effect was also observed in these children (Wilcoxon Signed-rank test for VAS was 0.43). Six of the nine therapists who took part in the study, found the measure quick and easy to apply, used the information in the management of the child and would continue to use it in future. Conclusions: The EQ-5D-Y could be used with confidence as an outcome measure for acutely-ill children, but demonstrated poorer psychometric properties in children with no health condition or chronic conditions. It appears to be feasible and useful to include the EQ-5D-Y in routine assessments of children.