OpenUCT :: Browsing by Author "Chirikure, Shadreck"

Browsing by Author "Chirikure, Shadreck"

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Open Access
Archaeological collections as a prime research asset: objects and Great Zimbabwe's past
(2018) Chiripanhura, Pauline; Chirikure, Shadreck
This thesis sought to explore the lifeways of second-millennium AD inhabitants of Great Zimbabwe through the analyses of material objects housed in museums. Great Zimbabwe comprises walled stone enclosures and non-walled settlements covering approximately 720ha. A number of data acquisition techniques, such as desktop survey, analyses of museum collections, supplementary field survey and excavations, were employed to collect relevant datasets to address the research questions. The sampling strategy adapted for this research enabled the study of material objects from different components making up Great Zimbabwe. The main conclusions drawn from this study are as follows: (i) Within varying temporal scales, the nature and distribution of local and imported objects are largely similar across the site; (ii) chronologically and typologically speaking, there is evidence that different parts of the site were occupied and abandoned at different times; and (iii) based on the similarities in material objects and associated production debris and infrastructure, it is likely that different components were self-sufficient units. This study has underscored the significance of existing collections in developing new interpretations of Great Zimbabwe's past lifeways, thereby motivating for the need for similar work to understand the hundreds of similar settlements scattered across southern Africa.
Open Access
An archaeological study of the Zimbabwe culture capital of Khami, south-western Zimbabwe
(2016) Mukwende, Tawanda; Chirikure, Shadreck; Hall, Simon
This study sought to understand the archaeology of the Zimbabwe Culture capital of Khami through synchronic and diachronic analyses of its material culture. The research employed a number of methodological approaches that included a review of historic documents, surveying and mapping, excavations, museum collection analysis, and artefact studies, in order to collect datasets from various sections of the site, including the walled and the nonwalled areas. The main indication is that there is a great deal of similarity in material culture distribution across the whole site. An analysis of objects by stratigraphic sequence exposes continuity and change in local and imported objects. Dry stone-wall architectural data suggests that the site was constructed over a long period, with construction motivated by a number of expansionary factors. The study confirms that Khami began as a fully developed cultural unit, with no developmental trajectory recorded at Mapungubwe or Great Zimbabwe, where earlier ceramic units influenced later ones. Consequently, this study cautiously suggests that Khami represents a continuity with the Woolandale chiefdoms that settled in the south-western parts of the country and in the adjacent areas of Botswana. On the basis of the chronological and material culture evidence, Khami is unlikely to have emerged out of Great Zimbabwe. However, more research is needed to confirm these emergent conclusions, and to better understand the chronological and spatial relationships between not just Woolandale and Khami sites but also Khami and the multiple Khami-type sites scattered across southern Zambezia.
Open Access
Archaeology and archaeometallurgy in Limpopo province of South Africa: case studies of early iron age sites of Mutoti and Thomo
(2021) Mathoho, Ndivhuho Eric; Chirikure, Shadreck
Decades of archaeological research have established the chronology of the history of culture by farmers in northern South Africa from the beginning of the first millennium AD to the recent past (1900). This thesis sought to explore the archaeology and archaeometallurgy of the early inhabitants of the Lowveld region. Rigorous methodological and theoretical approaches, which include Ethno-Historical, archaeological and archaeometallurgical studies, were employed to acquire the relevant information required to address research problems. Ceramic typology and settlement pattern studies were used to establish the culture-history to contextualise Iron Age sites, while Optical Microscopy, X-Ray Fluorescence analysis (XRF) and Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) were used to investigate the metallurgical remains to understand metal production technology. Both Mutoti and Thomo sites share several similarities, namely, they are situated near the perennial streams, the presence of metal-production sites and the predominant pottery types, consisting of short and long neck vessels dominated by comb stamping, incision and punctate decorations on the rim, neck and shoulder of the vessels. Ceramic tradition analysis revealed that both Mut 2 and Thomo combine ceramic designs and attributes that appeared in the region near the beginning of the first Millennium AD, that is the Urewe and the Kalundu traditions. Garonga Phase tradition developed from the Urewe tradition which represent the first facie, represented by the Silver Leaves sites of the Kwale branch ceramic tradition which dates to AD 280- 420 and the Kalundu tradition (which starts from Happy Rest and progresses to Diamant - Phase 2) which dates from the sixth century AD, both traditions share distinctive ceramics styles and decoration attributes (Burrett, 2007; Huffman, 2007). The radiocarbon-based chronology suggests that Mut 2 and Thomo sites were occupied contemporaneously and dated to AD 650-850. Analysis of the distribution of materials objects across Mut 2 site revealed active participation in both local and international trade network (Soapstone and Islamic ceramics) operated at a village status. Some of the craft production related evidence include metal production, eggshell beads and cloth manufacturing. Metal production was regarded as signature of power and authority in Iron Age period (Herbert, 1996). More research may strengthen this observation.
Open Access
The archaeology and technology of metal production in the Late Iron Age of the Southern Waterberg, Limpopo Province, South Africa
(2013) Bandama, Foreman; Chirikure, Shadreck; Hall, Simon
The inception of metallurgy in southern Africa was relatively late, compared to other regions in Africa, and as a result, this part of the sub-continent was mistakenly thought to have been less innovative during the Iron Age. On the contrary, dedicated materials analyses are showing that starting from the terminal first millennium AD, southern Africa is replete with innovations that include the growth of state systems, specialised long-distance trading, the re-melting of glass beads, the working of ivory, and the weaving of cotton using ceramic spindle whorls. Additionally, the appearance of gold and tin production, against a background of on-going iron and copper metallurgy, has been interpreted by some as intimating innovation in metal technology. While some research energy has been invested into these novelties, there has only been incidental concern with the innovation in tin and bronze production. This study investigates the context of this novelty in the metallurgy of the Southern Waterberg, an area that hosts one of the unequivocal cases of pre-colonial tin mining in southern Africa. Recent trace element studies have indicated that bronzes from several elite sites in the region, were produced using tin that was sourced from the Southern Waterberg. The current chronology from the Southern Waterberg does not capture the full tin sequence that is implicated by the trace-element analyses of tin and bronze from dated contexts elsewhere and falls short by at two centuries. To bridge this gap, the present study sought, to explore the visibility of tin production in the Southern Waterberg at sites that are contemporary with the appearance of tin and bronze in southern Africa, and to investigate how this innovation was integrated into on-going iron and copper production. Rigorous methodological and theoretical approaches that include ethno-historical, archaeological and archaeometallurgical studies were employed in order to glean relevant information required to address these issues. Ceramic typological and settlement pattern studies were used to establish the culture-historical context, while Optical Microscopy, X-ray Fluorescence Analysis and Scanning Electron Microscopy of metallurgical remains were used to identify the metals and techniques that were employed. Ceramic technological studies were used to establish relationships between the metallurgy and the ceramic typological identities. The results suggest that the Southern Waterberg may have participated in the innovation of tin production in southern Africa. More research may strengthen this observation but it is entirely appropriate, in view of several metallurgical and non-metallurgical innovations that were on-going in societies throughout the region at large. Researchers now need to engage more with innovations and actively explore the various novelties that southern Africa exhibited during the Iron Age.
Open Access
The archaeology of Mapela Hill, South-Western Zimbabwe
(2016) House, Michelle; Chirikure, Shadreck
The Middle Iron Age in southern Africa has long been associated with the development of class distinction and state formation. However, most research focus has been on K2 and Mapungubwe in the Middle Limpopo Valley, the presumed first state capitals of the region. Mapela Hill is a site located outside the Middle Limpopo in south western Zimbabwe. Preliminary excavations at the summit of the hill by Peter Garlake in 1968 has resulted in archaeologists drawing contrasting conclusions about the position of the site in the development of complexity in the region. The problem is that we do not have sufficient evidence to support nor deny these theories. As a result of excavations from the foot of the hill to the hill summit, this study has used a combination of theories and analyses in order to classify the material cultural objects recovered at Mapela Hill. Ceramic studies have been used to identify the cultural groups which occupied the site, and tight radiocarbon dates were established, giving insight to the chronology of the site. The results showed that Mapela Hill was occupied by the same groups as at Mapungubwe Hill, contains vast revetment stone walling, successions of thick solid dhaka hut floors and an abundance of traded glass beads; attributes which collectively signify state formation in the region. The radiocarbon dates revealed that the site was occupied before, during and after the abandonment of Mapungubwe Hill. These results call for more research at relatively unknown sites in the region as a progression towards new frameworks for the development of state formation in the Shashe Limpopo confluence
Open Access
Circulation of copper and copper alloys in hinterland southern Africa: material evidence from Great Zimbabwe (1000-1700CE)
(2022) Mugabe, Bedone; Chirikure, Shadreck; Le Roux, Petrus
This dissertation seeks to establish the possible provenance of copper and copper alloys used at Great Zimbabwe (1000-1700CE) to infer local and regional circulation circuits. It employs archaeological, archival, and geochemical methods to characterize samples of 26 wound wire bracelets, bangles, anklets, necklaces, and other forms of expressive and decorative wear excavated from the southern terrace, (Hill Complex) at Great Zimbabwe. The samples were macroscopically, microscopically, chemically and isotopically characterized to understand the technique of manufacture, chemical composition, lead isotopic ratios and the starting composition of uranium and thorium in relation the model ages. The Pb isotopic data calculated 238U/204Pb (μ), 232Th/ 238U(κ) ratios and estimated model ages (T) were compared with published lead isotopic ratios from various ore samples from central and southern Africa. Within opportunities afforded by the historical record and limitations imposed by small sample sizes especially of the comparative geology, indications are that the studied objects were produced using ores matching the Cu-Ni mineralization at Empress Mine (in Zimbabwe), Cu Ag and Cu Pb Zn Ag mineralization associated with the Kundelungu Plateau (bordering Zambia and Democratic Republic of Congo). This suggests that Great Zimbabwe participated directly and indirectly in the vibrant micro, regional and interregional circulation of copper and other resources. Future work, must however, add more trace element data from the objects and increase the number of samples from ancient mines and other sites to develop a fuller picture of the movement of copper in Iron Age southern Africa through space and time.
Open Access
A comparison of the commoner material culture to that of the elite material culture at Great Zimbabwe
(2017) Sonnenberg, Liesl; Chirikure, Shadreck
This dissertation presents the results of a study done on the area situated outside of the Outer Perimeter Wall, believed to be the commoner area at Great Zimbabwe. The methodology used in this study combined archival with artefact studies and archaeological field work. The study aimed to acquire an understanding of the uses at the commoner area at Great Zimbabwe. Focus was aimed at material culture used by the underclass to understand how it compares with that of the upper class. The comparison between the elite and non-elite areas showed that there was not a large difference between the material cultures. The ceramic analysis showed an expansion of Great Zimbabwe over time. These results are important and offer a new perspective on the social stratigraphy of the Great Zimbabwe civilization. The differences found related to objects of power, such as stone walling and soapstone artefacts; these objects only being seen in the elite areas. This study offers a new perspective in the analysis of Great Zimbabwe, and the methodology could be used as a foundation for future studies of ancient civilizations world-wide.
Open Access
Continuing Conversations at the Frontier
(2010) Mulaudzi, Maanda; Schoeman, H M; Chirikure, Shadreck
Researchers involved or interested in the 500 Year Initiative (FYI) gathered at the University of Cape Town in June 2008 to explore how different disciplines engaged in historical studies may better communicate and collaborate within and between each other. Appropriately titled ‘Continuing Conversations at the Frontier’, participants in this conference challenged themselves to cross the theoretical and methodological borders separating archaeology, history, geography, anthropology and linguistics, in order to understand how and under what influence modern southern African identities have taken shape over the past 500 years. These conversations made it clear that new insights are not only reliant on new data, but that it is equally important to expose our methodologies and processes of gaining understanding. In addition to confronting disciplinary boundaries and methods, social and spatial frontiers were key loci for discussion, although it became apparent that historians and archaeologists have approached frontiers in different ways. We briefly explore the roots of these approaches.
Open Access
Digitisation and access to Archives: Case study of Sarah Baartman and Khoi San Collections
(2018) Cornelissen, Rozanne Leigh; Chirikure, Shadreck
Digitisation is occurring all over the world today. So to bring it to South Africa is one step in changing people’s understandings of Africa, because the information would be accessible to the world and the rest of South Africa. There are many challenges that have been debated around digitisation in Africa such as technological challenges, international relations or external institutions, the creation of a new kind of archive and the various digitising projects that have occurred in Africa specifically for creating online libraries. This study’s focal point is on two collections that are housed at the University of the Western Cape Archive; The Sarah Baartman and Khoi San Collections. The documents with regards to Sarah Baartman are the books of her story and how she became famous, but there is more to the books that we see in the shops or hear of. The collection of documents hold valuable information about her return to her homeland and the research of her descent. The Sarah Baartman Collection consists of the documentation that helped with the return of her remains. The University of the Western Cape Khoi San Collection consists of documentation of the Khoi San Conference that was held in 1994, with regards to the notion of becoming an identity and to view the Khoi San as people and not as just objects of study. The documents are basically faxes and letters that were sent to a Professor Bredekamp at the University of the Western Cape who was a participant in the conference. The University of the Western Cape Khoi San Collection is different from the Bleek and Lloyd Collections in that it is not someone’s journal or research but peoples voices of protecting the Khoi San Heritage. The two collections were chosen due to the fact that there was a gap in how to digitise collections that belonged to indigenous people/ descendent communities within South Africa and how to access these collections. The key purpose of the study is to determine the implications that digitisation has on Public Access. The aims of the study were to investigate the factors that determined decisions about how to digitise an Archive and how does Access impact digitisation. The data for this study was collected by the help of Archivists. The subjects of this study were archivists with the respected expert knowledge in digitisation. A semi-structured questionnaire was emailed to six Archivists. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with the same six Archivists; the interviews were recorded on audiotape or hand written. On the basis of the results of this research it can be concluded that archives need to develop policies that incorporate consultations and take into consideration the descendent communities before the digitisation process occurs. There need to be cultural sensitivity towards collections of indigenous people which rarely occurs during digitisation. The recommendations that flowed from this study are: there needs to be further research in the curation of digital archives, needs to be more communication between archives and communities and digitisation policies need to be standardized.
Open Access
Does similarity equal relationship? An archaeological study of Tsindi, a Dzimbahwe site in North-eastern Zimbabwe
(2018) Mukabeta, Kelvin; Chirikure, Shadreck
Traditionally, archaeological sites making up the Zimbabwe culture were studied using old Childean understanding to the extent that all sites that are smaller than Great Zimbabwe were viewed as lesser important places under its hegemony. Using African centred frameworks, this study represents an attempt to revisit the archaeological site of Tsindi, a Zimbabwe culture site near Marondera in northeastern Zimbabwe. Methodologically, the re-assessment is based on a survey of published and unpublished literature, museum archival records and collections, as well as field surveys, excavations and artefact studies. The study reached convergence with earlier studies on the observation that drystone walls and pottery from upper levels in the sequence of Tsindi are closely related to that from Great Zimbabwe and related sites. However, there are some localised differences within the walls and pottery that speak to contextual innovation and ultimately variation. Available chronological information shows that Tsindi has an earlier Harare tradition occupation which is overlain by levels with Zimbabwe pottery. Combined together, the similarities and differences that appear on identical material culture suggest that Tsindi and Great Zimbabwe were authored by related people who may have interacted with each other directly or indirectly. Recourse to Shona anthropology and history suggests the presence of autonomous political formations (e.g. chiefdoms and states) generally within more than hundred kilometres of each other. If local histories that connect the Nhowe people of north-eastern Zimbabwe to Tsindi are correct, then the site was the capital of a Nhowe chiefdom. In broad terms this suggests the presence of multiple but independent polities on the landscape. Future research must, however, explore in more detail the nature of the relationships between individual polities such as Tsindi and similar ones such as Mutoko, Tere and among others Harleigh Farm that are associated with different chiefdoms.
Open Access
Exploring Networks of Interaction at the Iron Age Site of Mtanye, South Western Zimbabwe
(2019) Scholfield, Jordan Ryan; Chirikure, Shadreck
Networks of interaction as well as community formation have been widely researched within Southern Zambezian archaeology of the early second millennium A.D. Despite this, research into these communities is often asymmetrical with objects delegated a passive role in the formation of not only networks of interaction but also socio-material development. Further, research tends to focus on society as the source of action in these processes. Using the site of Mtanye, the aim of this study is to create a relational ontology in which agency is distributed among heterogenous entities. Moreover, this study attempts to demonstrate how networks of interaction might have shaped this community. Mtanye is a Leopard’s Kopje phase 2 site with stratified Transitional K2 (1200-1250 A.D.) and Mapungubwe (1250-1300) deposit. This site has further been placed into the wider conventional narrative as being evidence for the expansion of the Mapungubwe state. In order to recreate the networks of interaction that were present at Mtanye, Actor-Network Theory informed in part by the ethno-historical record was enlisted. The results of this study show that Mtanye has hill occupation, stone walling and access to prestige goods, characteristics conventionally not ascribed to periphery sites. Further, the results of this study suggest that it is more prudent to view the socio-material development of Mtanye, not in terms of the political or economic expansion of a hegemonic power but rather as a product of heterogeneous networks of interaction. This study may further provide a framework for understanding socio-material development and networks of interaction during the early second millennium A.D. in Southern Zambezia.
Open Access
Great Zimbabwe in the 21st century
(2013) Chirikure, Shadreck
by Dr Shadreck Chirikure, Department of Archaeology, University of Cape Town. This audio lecture explores the famous Southern African archaeological site Great Zimbabwe. This resource is useful for anyone interested in learning more about Great Zimbabwe.
Open Access
Human-Plant Interactions in Semi-Arid Regions: An Archaeobotanical Study of the Iron Age Site of Mtanye, Southwestern Zimbabwe
(2019) Mushangwe, Cornelius Taurai; Chirikure, Shadreck
Humans have always interacted with plants for thousands of years ago. The origin of plant domestication is a clear example of human-plant mutualism. This mutual relationship has gradually developed into a co-entangled relationship where both symbionts benefit each other in an environment. The evidence of this relationship is confirmed by the use of plants across the globe, which constitutes a critical component in the livelihoods of people. It is likely to have been the case during the Iron Age period in Southern Africa, particularly in southwestern Zimbabwe where diversity of plant resources and other economic activities supported the Early farming communities in a variety of ways. Unfortunately, the available information about plant use, the role of crops and wild plants beyond diet and subsistence is widely dispersed. Studies that adequately analyse plant remains from Early Iron Age sites to understand the purpose of plants especially wild in the daily livelihoods of early farming communities is lagging. The labour and decision making invested in the selection, management, gathering, processing and consumption of these plants is not known. This research explored an analysis of archaeobotanical remains at Mtanye site, one of the early farming communities in Gwanda, southwestern Zimbabwe. Ethnobotanical and archaeobotanical techniques, as well as further microscopic analysis of seeds in the laboratory, were performed. The assessment of ethnobotanical examinations and archaeobotanical remains concluded that plants were vital to Mtanye community’s daily livelihoods, by offering an essential contribution to social, religious and economic development in the face of environmental challenges. The people at Mtanye treated crop cultivation and gathering of wild plants with more considerable ingenuity just like other sectors of their economies. Considering that the environment was not conducive for adequate crop farming, the intensive use of wild plant resources likely underpinned their ability to survive in a semi-arid environment for a prolonged time.
Open Access
Interaction, integration, and innovation at the 17th century feira of Dambarare, northern Zimbabwe
(2017) Schenck, Catherine; Chirikure, Shadreck
Several feiras (or trading towns) were established north and south of the Zambezi River towards the end of the 16th and early 17th centuries. Those feiras south of the Zambezi were mercantile and domestic settlements built by the Mutapa state and the Portuguese, and acted as points of contact between foreign and local traders. Dambarare, one of the more important feiras of the 17th century, was excavated in 1967 and the archive subsequently grew due to development activities in the region. In nearly fifty years, no-one has considered this archive as a whole, and few questions have been asked about the nature of the relationships between its inhabitants, and between them and their neighbours. The archival records are considered to better understand the site, and the objects are approached by considering their ability to show multivocality and entanglement at a site where various people were converging. The themes of interaction, integration, and innovation at this contact site are put to the fore in this dissertation. The results of the study point to a much more complex settlement and manner of interaction than previously understood. It does not seem as though changes and adaptations were brought on by force from one group at the site, but rather choices were deliberate, whether by choice or necessity. These interactions indicate a complex negotiation and creolisation that occurred between the various identities at the feira. These interpretations then fit into a larger attempt in the archaeology of the region to better understand the role of hinterland communities in the Indian Ocean Trade System, and to change existing opinions of such sites and their peopling. This dissertation attempts, therefore, to show that at a Zambezian hinterland site such as Dambarare, people were not merely passive receptors, but rather active agents in the changes that occurred, as well as causing their foreign counterparts to adapt to them.
Open Access
Iron age decorative metalwork in southern Africa: an archival study
(2016) Walker, Ellen Jeanine; Chirikure, Shadreck; Maggs, Timothy
This thesis addresses continuity and change in the manufacture and use of decorative metalwork in the Iron Age (200-1900 AD) of southern Africa, within a framework of archival studies and artefact studies theory. The thesis adopted a direct historical approach which exploited the huge database of existing information to create typologies of objects and processing techniques that are prominent in ethno-historical sources of the 19th and 20th centuries. This process enabled for the first time, a comprehensive mapping of object typologies and techniques of manufacture by ethnic groups thereby allowing cross cultural comparisons. Subsequently, the study explored the typology of objects utilized further back in the time of the Early Iron Age using archaeological evidence. It demonstrated that most of the objects used in the Iron Age were similar to those that were used in the 19th century. However, new innovations were made along the way with metals and alloys being constantly added to the range of materials worked. A dedicated visual study of fabrication techniques employed in the manufacture of ethnographic materials housed at Iziko Museum of Cape Town was carried out. The techniques gleaned from the macroscopic study were compared with those metallographically documented in the literature for the manufacture of Iron Age objects, further exposing continuity and change in metal fabrication. The social, economic and political role of decorative metalwork was hardly static, and varied from context to context and group to group.
Open Access
Living on the margin?: The Iron Age communities of Mananzve Hill, Shashi region, South-western Zimbabwe
(2017) Nyamushosho, Robert Tendai; Chirikure, Shadreck
In conventional reconstructions of the Iron Age archaeology of southern Africa, drylands have long been viewed as marginal landscapes that did not host any significant agropastoral communities in the past. Against this background, this study explores the discourse of dryland marginality in southern Zambezia using the Shashi region as a case study. Archaeological surveys and excavations were conducted to retrieve reliable data for establishing the settlement history and adaptation strategies of Iron Age communities that lived in this landscape. The study was guided by the concepts of vulnerability, adaptation and resilience, as well as landscape archaeology. Results from excavations conducted at Mananzve, one of the surveyed and excavated sites, show that this part of the Shashi region has a long settlement history spanning the Early Iron Age and the Later Iron Age. Analyses of the recovered material culture shows that Iron Age communities that resided at Mananzve adapted various methods of indigenous dryland agriculture to maintain food security. These findings show that adaptation is context-specific and challenge the designation of drylands such as the Shashi region as 'marginal', since that term undermines the adaptive capacity and resilience of Iron Age communities.
Open Access
Marrying water and soil: adaptation to climate by a smallholder farmer in Zvishavane, rural Zimbabwe
(2016) Mabeza, Christopher Munyaradzi; Green, Lesley; Ziervogel, Gina; Chirikure, Shadreck
This thesis is a qualitative ethnographic study of innovations implemented by Mr Zephaniah Phiri Maseko, a smallholder farmer from Zvishavane, rural Zimbabwe. Ethnographic data provides insight and lessons of his practices for rethinking existing strategies for adaptation to climate change. The concept of adaptation is probed i n relationship to the closely related concepts of vulnerability, resilience and innovation. This study also explores the concept of conviviality and argues that Mr Phiri Maseko's adaptation to climate hinges on mediating barriers between local and exogenous knowledge systems. Ethnographic fieldwork aided by an analytical framework of resilience makes clear that his farming practices are informed by a realisation that dualisms are problematic. His innovations are a way of building resilience to climate change and his practices demonstrate the interdependencies in a socio - ecological system. This study argues that innovations by smallholders play a complementary role to interventions by outsiders in the discourse of adaptation to climate in the drylands of southern Zimbabwe. Mr Phiri Maseko harvested water as a way of adapting to climate variability. I argue that he offered tangible adaptive climate strategies through his innovations that "marry water and soil so that it won't elope and run - off but raise a family" on his plot. His agricultural practices are anchored on the Shona concept of hurudza (an exceptionally productive farmer). This thesis explores the concept and practices of uhurudza , to suggest that the latter - day hurudza (commercial farmer) as embodied by Mr Phiri Maseko offered an important set of resources for the development of climate adaptation strategies in the region. Therefore, his activities call for a revisit of the notion of hurudza based on grain harvested, one that includes consistent income generated from selling farm produce. His innovations demonstrate elements of conviviality, resilience, accommodating local knowledge as well as ideas he learnt from various educational institutions in order to adapt to climate variability. This thesis explores the usefulness of Mr Phiri Maseko's innovations for other smallholder farmers in the Zvishavane area who have replicated it. I demonstrate that due to the success of his innovations, uptake has been high underpinning the fact that these smallholders appear to be managing to adapt to climate variability. This ethnographic study of smallholder farmers' adoption of innovations to climate highlights the "complex interplay" of multiple factors that act as barriers to uptake. Such interplay of multiple stressors increases the vulnerability of smallholders. I conclude by arguing that in as much as the skewed colonial land policy impoverished the smallholder farmers, Mr Phiri Maseko nonetheless redefined himself as a latter - day hurudza and thus breaks free from the poverty cycle by 'conjuring ingenious' ways of reducing vulnerability to climate. I do not suggest that his innovations offer a 'silver bullet' solution to the insecure rural livelihoods of smallholder farmers; nevertheless, they are a source of hope in an environment of uncertainty.
Open Access
Modelling Land Use in The Gold Belt Territories of Iron Age Southern Zambezia
(2022-08-29) Nyamushosho, Robert T; Chirikure, Shadreck; Sitas, Ari; Maṱhoho, Eric N
Throughout the world, the entanglement of humans and landscapes varies from area to area depending on the time scale. In southern Africa, the impact of humanity on the physical environment is largely discussed in the context of modern rural and urban societies, and, usually, most contributions come from human geography, agriculture, and earth sciences. Very limited research is usually extended into the deep past, yet the archaeological record is replete with valuable information that gives a long-time depth of past human land use practices. Consequently, the contribution of the physical environment to the development of complexity over time remains poorly understood in most parts of Iron Age (CE 200–1900) southern Zambezia, particularly in Mberengwa and other gold-belt territories that have often received cursory research attention. What remains obscured is how did inhabitants of these gold-belt territories transform their landscapes in the long and short-term and how did these transformations intersect with their everyday lives? In this study, we combined archaeological, historical, and anthropological data of the Zimbabwe tradition societies that lived in ancient Mberengwa to probe these issues. The preliminary outcome suggests that despite vulnerability to high temperatures, tsetse-flies, and low rainfall, Later Iron Age societies that inhabited this gold belt territory were innovative risk-takers who successfully adapted a mix of land use practices to achieve longevity in settlement and prosperity in agropastoralism, mining, crafting, and much more. This proffers useful lessons on sustainable land use. Hopefully, with modification to suit the present, such solutions may help policy makers and modern societies living in similar environments to combat current global challenges related to environmental change.
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New light on Njanja iron working: Towards a systematic encounter between ethnohistory and archaeometallurgy
(South African Archaeological Society, 2006) Chirikure, Shadreck
Victorian ideas on evolution had strong adherents amongst the European men and women who colonized Africa. Such individuals perceived themselves as superior and viewed African societies and cultures as primitive. Yet, some missionaries who encountered Njanja iron-workers in what is now Zimbabwe were astonished by the sophistication of their industry and even labelled it 'the Wolverhamptonof Mashonaland'. This is unexpected given the stereotypical and derogatory perception of African cultures and technologies that was deeply entrenched at the time. Throughout the 20th century, historical and archaeological research revealed that Njanja iron production was specialized and that it conferred economic power on master smelters, hence promoting their political fortunes. Despite this consistent story of successful economic specialization, the technical parameters, such as the conditions of operation in the furnaces, the quality of the ores and the skills of the smiths in manipulating furnace conditions, remain largely unknown. The results of preliminary metallurgical analyses are presented in this paper. Comparisons with the physico-chemical characteristics of slag from historical sites revealed that even though Njanja smelting was constrained by the underlying principles of the bloomery process, there were some subtle links between specialized production, efficiency in reduction and product quality.
Open Access
Stakeholders, conservation and socio-economic development: the case of Mapungubwe Cultural Landscape World Heritage Site, South Africa
(2019) Taruvinga, Pascall; Chirikure, Shadreck; Ndoro, Weber
The strategic importance of World Heritage sites in addressing social needs is now well recognised in Africa and elsewhere. However, the contribution of these sites to socio-economic development is rarely a topic of empirical investigation and is mostly implied. It is in this context that research was performed on stakeholder-driven conservation and socio-economic development processes, using Mapungubwe Cultural Landscape World Heritage Site (South Africa) as the case study. The study solicited the views and opinions of 243 participants, using a dynamic and mixed methodology which combined desktop studies, questionnaire surveys, interviews and Delphi techniques. This mixed methodology was premised on the Multiple-Multi-Layered Stakeholder Theory (MMST). The main findings of the thesis are that conservation and socio-economic development are equally important and should co-exist as stakeholder-driven processes at Mapungubwe Cultural Landscape World Heritage Site (MCLWHS). This supports the notion of caring for the well-being of both heritage and society. The study also established that, while there are benefits associated with World Heritage, the lack of credible statistics and the absence of monitoring indicators mean that its contribution to socio-economic development is not quantified. In addition, the study reveals that, while Mapungubwe Cultural Landscape World Heritage Site (MCLWHS) has multiple stakeholders with different expectations and levels of power, these are not involved in the decision-making processes at the site. This creates challenges that impede the full realization of both conservation and socio-economic benefits at MCLWHS, which can only be addressed through adaptive management supported by creativity and innovation embedded in multi-pronged strategies. The results motivate for adoption of adaptive management approaches, “learning by doing”, as opposed to a monolithic adherence to State-Based Management Systems. An adaptive approach promotes better communication flow between decision makers and all other stakeholders to ensure stakeholder-driven conservation and socio-economic development at World Heritage sites. Neither conservation nor socio-economic development plan for each other at World Heritage sites, yet both cannot be disassociated from their broader environment and related stakeholders. The study concludes that World Heritage governance should be about managing continuity and change as influenced by multiple stakeholders who are the beneficiaries of both conservation and developments at heritage sites. World Heritage has potential to contribute massively to socio-economic development in and around host communities without eroding its credibility and integrity.

Browsing by Author "Chirikure, Shadreck"

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